GIFT  OF 


INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 


INTRODUCTION 
TO  SOCIOLOGY 


By 


EMORY  S.  BOGARDUS,  PH.D. 
»* 

Professor  and  Head  of  Department  of  Sociology 
University  of  Southern  California 

Author  of 

ESSENTIALS  OF  SOCIAL  PSYCHOLOGY 

ESSENTIALS    OF    AMERICANIZATION 

A  HISTORY  OF  SOCIAL  THOUGHT 


THIRD  REFISED  EDITION 


1922 

JESSE  RAY  MILLER 

UNIVERSITY  OF  SOUTHERN  CALIFORNIA  PRESS 
Los  ANGELES 


COPYRIGHT  1922,  /  ^  ^ 

UNIVERSITY  OF  SOUTHERN  CALIFORNIA  PRESS 

FIRST  EDITION,  1913 
SECOND  EDITION,  1917 
THIRD  EDITION,  1922 


JESSE    RAY    MILLER 

UNIVERSITY   OF    SOUTHERN    CALIFORNIA    PRESS 
LOS    ANGELES 


DEDICATED 

TO  THE  MEMORY 

OF  MY  FATHER  AND  MOTHER 

HENRY  B.  AND  ELIZA  M.  BOGARDUS. 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  I.    THE   NATURE   OF   HUMAN   GROUPS  .        .        .          15 

1.  The  study  of  group  phenomena. 

2.  Personal  behavior  and  group  life. 

3.  The  historical  development  of  the  human  group. 

CHAPTER  II.     GROUPS  AND  GEOGRAPHIC  FACTORS 

1.  The  earth  as  man's  home. 

2.  Influences  of  soil  fertility  and  land  area. 

3.  Effects  of  mountain  and  ocean  environments. 

4.  Climatic  control. 

CHAPTER  III.     GROUPS  AND  BIOLOGIC  FACTORS        ....          52 

1.  Heredity  and  variation. 

2.  Organic  and  social  evolution. 

3.  Vitality  and  eugenic  control. 

4.  Vitality  and  public  health  control. 

CHAPTER  IV.    GROUPS  AND  PSYCHOLOGIC  FACTORS        ...          75 

1.  Instinctive-emotional  tendencies. 

2.  Habitual  and  conscious  reactions. 

3.  Imitation  and  invention. 

>   4.  Communication  and  gregariousness. 

CHAPTER  V.    GROUPS  AND   SOCIOLOGIC  FACTORS     ....          94  / 

1.  Social  attitudes  and  values. 

2.  The  social  process. 

3.  Socialization  and  social  control. 

CHAPTER  VI.    THE   FAMILY  GROUP 112 

1.  The   history   of  the  family  group. 

2.  Present  status  and  tendencies  of  the  family. 

CHAPTER  VII.    THE  FAMILY  GROUP    (continued)  .        .        .        136 

3.  Housing  the  family. 

4.  Socializing  the  family. 

CHAPTER  VIII.    THE  PLAY  GROUP 153   • 

1.  The  play  attitude. 

2.  The  commercialization  of  play. 

3.  The  socialization  of  play. 


8  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

CHAPTER  IX.     THE   OCCUPATIONAL   GROUP 179 

1.  Occupational  origins. 

2.  Labor  and  unionization. 

3.  Child  labor. 

CHAPTER  X.    THE  OCCUPATIONAL  GROUP    (continued)  .        .        197 

4.  Women  in  industry. 

5.  Dangerous  occupations  and  unemployment. 

6.  Low  incomes  and  poverty. 

CHAPTER  XI.     THE  OCCUPATIONAL  GROUP    (continued)         .        .        213 

7.  Capital  and  the  corporate  group. 

8.  Socialism. 

9.  Social  insurance  and  co-operative  movements. 
10.  Industrial  democracy. 

-?     CHAPTER  XII.    THE  COMMUNITY  GROUP 232 

1.  The  neighborhood  group. 

2.  The  nation  group. 

3.  The  world  group. 

4.  Community  consciousness. 

CHAPTER  XIII.    THE  EDUCATIONAL  GROUP  ....        256 

1    1.  The  school  group. 

2.  The  newspaper  and  the  cinema. 

3.  The  educational  process. 

CHAPTER  XIV.     THE    RELIGIOUS    GROUP 276 

1.  The  religious  attitude. 

2.  The  social  principles  of  Christianity. 

3.  Socializing  religion  and  the  church. 

CHAPTER  XV.     RURAL  AND   URBAN    GROUPS          ....        294 

1.  Rural  groups  and  problems. 

2.  Urban  groups  and  problems. 

CHAPTER  XVI.     RACIAL    GROUPS 309 

1.  Migration  -phenomena. 

2.  Racial  conflicts. 

3.  Assimilation  and  amalgamation. 

CHAPTER  XVII.     GROUP   CONTROL 329 

1.  The  nature  of  group  control. 

2.  Control  through  public  opinion  and  law. 

3.  Control  through  art. 


CONTENTS  9 

CHAPTER  XVIII.     GROUP  CONTROL  THROUGH  PERSONAL  BEHAVIOR        348 

1.  Personal  control. 

2.  Problems  in  personal  control. 

3.  Leadership   and  personal  control. 

CHAPTER  XIX.     GROUP   CONTROL   PROBLEMS  ....         366 

1.  Causes  of  anti-group  conduct. 

2.  Apprehension  and  trial  of  offenders. 

3.  Punishment  and  reformation. 

4.  Juvenile  delinquency. 

CHAPTER  XX.    GROUP  PROGRESS  AND  SOCIALIZED  THINKING        .        393 

1.  Social  surveys  and  research. 
-  -   2.  Social  work  and  reform. 

3.  Social  tele  sis. 

CHAPTER  XXI.    GROUP  PROGRESS  AND  SOCIALIZED  THINKING  (cont.)  408 

4.  The  teaching  of  sociology. 

5.  The  science  of  sociology. 

SELECTED  READINGS 423 

TOPICS  FOR  INVESTIGATION 440 

INDEX  449 


PREFACE  TO  THE  FIRST  EDITION  (1913) 

(Abridged) 

This  syllabus  is  published  as  it  is  being  worked  out  in 
practice  at  the  University  of  Southern  California.  While 
not  in  a  perfect  form,  it  represents  a  beginning  in  what  may 
be  an  important  direction. 

The  increasing  interest  in  the  study  of  society  and  so- 
cietary  problems  by  thinking  people  has  created  a  growing 
demand  for  social  science  courses  in  colleges  and  universities. 
The  need  is  not  entirely  for  upper  division  and  graduate 
students,  but  also  for  college  freshmen  and  sophmores  and 
students  in  normal  schools. 

There  is  need  for  a  sociological  course  of  study  that  will 
give  the  student  a  broad,  comprehensive  outlook  at  the 
beginning  of  his  college  career,  and  prepare  him  for  and 
arouse  his  interests  in  further  work  in  social  science.  This 
study  should  make  it  possible  for  him  to  choose  his  life- 
activity  with  reference  to  all  the  activities  of  society  and 
assist  him  more  or  less  permanently  in  keeping  his  life 
work  properly  accentuated  and  fitted  into  its  correct  place 
in  the  ongoing  of  the  social  process.  Such  a  course  may  well 
be  given,  not  from  the  uncorrelated  points  of  view  of  the 
respective  social  sciences,  but  from  a  societary  point  of 
view. 

The  chief  object  of  this  book  is  to  whet  the  student's 
appetite  for  more  knowledge  in  the  field  of  the  social  sciences, 
and  to  arouse  within  him  early  in  his  college  life  a  strong 
desire  to  go  ahead  systematically,  with  further  work  in  each 
of  the  social  science  branches. 


PREFACE  TO  THE  SECOND  EDITION  (1917) 

(Abridged) 

Several  changes  will  be  noted  in  this  edition.  (1)  The 
syllabus  form  has  been  supplanted  by  the  regular  text-book 
style.  (2)  The  title  has  been  changed  to  Introduction  to 
Sociology  from  Introduction  to  the  Social  Sciences.  (3)  In 
this  edition  the  emphasis  is  placed  upon  social  progress  as 
affected  by  the  various  constitutent  factors;  in  the  earlier 
edition  the  stress  was  placed  upon  the  factors  in  social 
progress:  a  change  of  emphasis  is  thereby  to  be  noted.  The 
modification  has  produced  more  unity  and  more  definite 
concentration  upon  sociological  data.  (4)  The  reading  refer- 
ences and  the  suggested  topics  for  investigation  have  been 
revised.  (5)  Exercises  for  class  discussion  have  been  added 
to  each  chapter.  (6)  The  reorganization  of  materials  has 
resulted  in  the  inclusion  of  four  additional  chapters. 

The  writer  is  convinced,  after  having  used  the  first  edition 
for  four  years,  that  the  college  student  will  become  a  better 
citizen  and  member  of  society  because  of  having  made  a 
comprehensive  analysis  of  social  progress  and  its  constitu- 
ent factors.  While  taking  such  a  course,  students  have 
experienced  a  fundamental  change  in  attitudes;  these  have 
slowly  but  surely  changed  from  narrow  and  often  shallow 
conceptions  to  broad,  deep,  rational,  and  social  beliefs.  The 
evidence  is  not  simply  that  of  word  of  mouth  but  in  behavior. 


PREFACE  TO  THE  THIRD  EDITION 


Ten  years  have  now  passed  since  the  author  first  began 
to  teach  the  beginning  course  in  sociology  to  lower  division 
college  and  university  students.  He  is  convinced  that  the 
freshman  year  in  college  is  none  too  soon  to  introduce  young 
people  to  sociological  truth;  in  fact,  such  a  period  is  probably 
belated.  Youth  needs  sociological  truth  as  soon  as  they 
begin  to  grasp  individualistic  truth. 

This  edition,  it  is  believed  by  the  writer,  represents  a 
distinct  advance  over  the  preceding  editions.  It  treats 
sociology  as  the  scientific  study  of  group  phenomena,  of  the 
factors  controlling  groups,  of  the  different  permanent  forms 
and  laws  of  group  life,  of  group  control  and  progress.  The 
principle  has  been  kept  to  the  front  throughout  the  treatise 
that  the  chief  justification  of  the  existence  of  any  group  is 
found  in  giving  the  persons  who  compose  that  group  the 
fullest  and  richest  possibilities  of  developing  all  their  poten- 
tial powers.  Another  principle  of  importance  has  been  given 
a  similar  prominence,  namely,  that  the  chief  justification  of 
the  existence  of  any  person  is  found  in  giving  his  life  un- 
selfishly in  upbuilding  the  lives  of  other  persons  and  groups. 


EMORY  S.  BOGARDUS 


January  I,  1922 

University  of  Southern  California 

Los  Angeles 


CHAPTER  I 
THE  NATURE  OF  HUMAN  GROUPS 


SOCIOLOGY  is  the  scientific  study  of  group  phe- 
nomena. These  consist  primarily  of  different  types 
of  social  groups,  of  group  processes,  of  group  insti- 
tutions, and  of  the  behavior  of  individuals  in  groups. 
It  is  well  therefore  that  this  study  be  opened  with 
a  consideration  of  the  nature  of  social  groups. 

1.  The  Study  of  Group  Phenomena.  Every 
person  is  a  member  of  several  social  groups.  More- 
over, he  has  developed  because  of  his  group  antece- 
dents and  connections.  He  cannot  be  understood 
and  he  cannot  even  understand  himself  unless  this 
group  life  and  process  first  be  fathomed  and  ana- 
lyzed. Neither  can  modern  family  life,  play  life,  oc- 
cupational life,  school  life,  religious  life,  or  com- 
munity life  in  their  various  rural  and  urban,  or 
racial  and  world  backgrounds  be  comprehended  un- 
less first  an  analysis  of  the  nature  and  laws  of  the 
social  group  be  made. 

All  the  groups  of  which  a  person  is  a  member  ex- 
ert an  unmeasured  influence  upon  him.  Their 
traditions  have  molded  his  attitudes.  They  are  con- 


16  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

tinually  directing  a  never-ending  variety  of  influ- 
ences upon  him,  sometimes  in  quiet,  indirect,  and 
unsuspected  ways,  and  then  occasionally  in  brazen 
fashion ;  sometimes  they  operate  helpfully,  and 
again  with  relentless  destruction. 

Withal,  each  person  exercises  an  influence,  to- 
ward or  untoward,  upon  the  groups  of  which  he  is 
a  unit.  As  a  result  of  the  give-and-take  processes  be- 
tween group   and  individual,  between  individual 
and  individual,  and  even  between  group  and  group, 
personality  expands  or  shrinks,  and  becomes  richer 
or  poorer  in  quality.     Out  of  the  multiplicity  of 
social  interaction,  personal  life  and  group  life  alike 
grow  rich  and  wholesome,  or  else  decay. 

Groups  vary  in  type.  The  smallest  includes  only 
two  persons,  for  example,  two  individuals  who  have 
met  on  the  street  for  only  a  few  minutes  to  con- 
verse; or  a  courtship  group  of  two  persons.  The 
largest  social  group  is  the  whole  human  race  with 
it  numbers  approximating  two  thousand  million  in- 
dividuals, a  group  intangible  and  unwieldy  in  con- 
ception and  for  the  most  part  without  a  world  group 
consciousness.  Again,  there  are  face-to-face  groups, 
as  the  family  group  or  the  play  group ;  and  in  other 
instances ,  there  is  the  largest  public  where  one 
member  rarely  sees  more  than  a  fraction  of  his 
group,  for  example,  of  his  national  or  racial  group. 
Some  associations  are  temporary,  lasting  only  a  few 
minutes,  as  in  the  case  of  the  conversational  group ; 


THE  NATURE  OF  HUMAN  GROUPS     17 

others  are  relatively  permanent,  lasting  a  millen- 
nium or  more,  for  instance,  the  English  government. 

A  person's  generic  relation  to  groups  varies.  He 
is  born  into  certain  groups,  such  as  the  family, 
neighborhood,  race,  and  national  groups ;  the  first 
and  third  of  these  he  can  never  forsake.  He  may 
elect  to  join  certain  types  of  groups,  such  as  the  ed- 
ucational, community,  or  political.  He  may  origi- 
nate a  group  by  organizing  a  committee  to  promul- 
gate a  legislative  measure,  or  to  abate  a  neighbor- 
hood nuisance ;  or  by  founding  a  society  to  develop 
a  public  or  professional  interest  in  art,  science,  or 
religion. 

Groups  conflict.  Football  teams  play  for  champ- 
ionship honors;  business  firms  compete  for  trade; 
political  parties  fight  bitterly;  and  nations  on  oc- 
casion resort  to  armed  warfare,  using  submarine 
and  poison  gas  viciously  against  each  other.  Under 
the  swirl  of  group  emotion,  sometimes  called  pa- 
triotism, individuals  forsake  their  loyalty  to  all  in- 
tra-groups,  and  dedicate  their  lives  to  the  larger 
group  service. 

The  conflict  often  takes  place  between  a  large 
group  and  a  constituent  association  of  persons.  A 
committee  may  struggle  vigorously  in  a  college  class 
meeting  in  behalf  of  a  change  in  traditions.  A  lobby 
in  Congress  may  work  year  in  and  out  in  behalf  of 
a  new  measure  or  to  support  a  dying  tradition.  Any 
propaganda  within  a  large  association  of  people  is 


18  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

opposed  by  the  inertia  or  the  active  opinion  of  the 
whole  body  and  also  by  small  groups  specifically 
organized  to  combat  the  new  doctrine.  A  National 
Child  Labor  Committee,  organized  to  protect  the 
welfare  of  children  in  industry,  finds  its  activities 
opposed  by  employers'  associations,  and  even  per- 
haps by  judicial  decisions  based  on  precedents  that 
were  established  decades  or  a  century  previous.  An 
organization  of  persons  who  are  working  together 
in  behalf  of  any  new  cause  must  face  the  opposition 
of  powerful  bodies  of  people  who  are  supporting  the 
established  order. 

Groups  conflict  in  friendly  ways.  One  organiza- 
tion of  college  students  vies  with  other  groups  in 
selling  tickets,  in  securing  members,  in  soliciting 
funds.  Farmers  compete  in  raising  corn  or  thor- 
oughbred cattle.  Salesmen  are  pitted  in  friendly 
competition  against  each  other  in  securing  custom- 
ers. 

Groups  co-operate.  Business  firms  form  cham- 
bers of  commerce.  Sororities  establish  a  pan-Hel- 
lenic. Churches  of  the  same  religious  profession 
create  districts  and  dioceses.  In  1789,  the  thirteen 
American  colonies  federated;  in  1921,  over  forty 
nations  united  in  a  world  League. 

Groups  overlap.  A  person  may  belong  to  a  family, 
a  school,  a  church,  and  a  nation  group  simultane- 
ously without  experiencing  a  serious  conflict  in  loy- 
alties. On  the  other  hand  certain  groups  are  mu- 


THE  NATURE  OF  HUMAN  GROUPS     19 

tually  exclusive.  At  a  given  time,  no  person  is  an 
active  member  of  both  the  Republican  and  Socialist 
parties ;  no  one  worships  as  both  a  Catholic  and  a 
Jew. 

The  study  of  human  association  may  be  ap- 
proached from  the  standpoint  of  animal  groups. 
The  pack  of  wolves,  the  herd  of  cattle,  the  swarm 
of  bees,  the  covey  or  flock  of  birds,  the  school  of 
fish — these  terms  indicate  a  central  fact  of  animal 
life,  namely,  an  associative  nature.  In  all  these 
groups  the  phenomena  of  leadership  and  group  con- 
trol are  found.  The  arbitrary  and  autocratic  ac- 
tivities of  physically  and  psychically  powerful  lead- 
ers are  paralleled  oftentimes  by  a  blind  obedience, 
and  sometimes  by  a  degree  of  over-organization  that 
is  stifling.  Examples  of  conflict  and  co-operative 
processes  in  associational  life  abound. 

Sociology  as  a  study  of  group  phenomena  is  an 
old  subject.  Scientific  methods  have  been  applied 
to  analyzing  group  life  only  within  recent  years, 
and  therefore  sociology  as  a  scientific  study  is  a  new 
subject  in  the  college  curriculum.  Its  growth,  how- 
ever, is  rapid;  the  belief  is  now  becoming  wide- 
spread that  no  person  is  well  educated  or  truly  cul- 
uired  who  is  unversed  in  sociological  principles. 

The  student  of  sociology  can  never  get  outside  his' 
laboratory,  which  is  comprised  of  human  groups. 
While  at  work  or  play,  and  while  experiencing  gain 
or  loss,  he  is  experimenting,  consciously  or  other- 


20  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

wise,  in  the  sociological  laboratory.  By  blundering 
along  with  his  eyes  set  chiefly  on  his  own  gain  he 
lives  and  dies,  his  praises  unheralded  or  else  sung 
in  a  limited  or  questionable  way,  without  returning 
the  talent  to  society  which  he  received  from  society. 
By  attaining  social  culture,  and  by  developing  a 
socialized  behavior  he  may  serve  mankind  helpfully, 
and  in  serving  develop  his  personality  into  a  full- 
orbed  sun  of  the  first  magnitude  in  the  societary 
firmament. 

Social  groups,  personalities,  social  attitudes,  and 
social  processes — these  are  the  leading  sociological 
data.  The  processes  by  which  personalities  are  de- 
veloped within  group  life — these  constitute  the  main 
field  of  sociological  study.  Sociology  therefore  is 
the  study  of  collective  and  personal  behavior  as 
evidenced  in  group  life. 

2.  Personal  Behavior  and  Group  Life.  Power- 
ful groups  are  usually  antecedent  to  the  persons 
who  comprise  them.  Nearly  every  person  has  been 
born  into  a  family  group  with  decades  of  traditions 
behind  it;  into  a  national  group  with  a  hoary  cul- 
ture; and  into  a  racial  group  with  its  pre-judgments 
rooted  in  ancient  epochs.  During  the  earliest  years 
of  his  life,  the  infant  is  almost  helpless  in  the  face 
of  these  traditional  attitudes  and  judgments,  with 
years,  decades,  centuries,  and  oftentimes  millen- 
niums of  momentum  carrying  them  on.  In  endless 


THE  NATURE  OF  HUMAN  GROUPS     21 

ways,  often  indirect  and  subtle,  these  gigantic  forces 
operate  upon  the  simple,  unorganized  mental  opera- 
tions of  the  mind  of  the  infant  or  child. 

The  child,  however,  is  not  made  of  putty ;  he  early 
begins  to  object  to  many  environmental  factors,  and 
his  behavior  takes  on  distinctive  traits.  Around 
these  reactions,  often  contrary  to  traditional  atti- 
tudes, his  personal  attitudes  are  built  up.  By  virtue 
of  the  unique  phases  of  his  behavior  he  becomes 
known  as  possessing  character,  either  good  or  bad. 

In  order  to  understand  personal  behavior  it  is 
necessary  to  know  the  nature  of  the  specific  social 
heritage.  A  person's  behavior  is  determined  in  part 
by  the  group  heritage  into  which  he  has  been  born 
and  under  whose  influence  he  has  been  raised.  Re- 
move the  social  heritage  of  mechanical  and  electri- 
cal discoveries  frpm  the  life  of  Thomas  A.  Edison, 
and  the  distinguished  scientist  could  not  have  con- 
tributed to  the  invention  of  the  incandescent  lamp, 
the  trolley  car,  the  telephone,  the  talking  machine, 
and  the  motion  picture  film.  Remove  the  social 
heritage  of  knowledge  concerning  steam  engines, 
telegraph  systems,  and  other  means  of  communica- 
tion, even  language  itself,  from  the  life  of  E.  H. 
Harriman,  and  there  would  have  been  no  "railroad 
king."  We  are  indebted  in  so  many  indirect  ways 
to  the  thought  life  of  preceding  generations  and  to 
the  preservation  and  transmission  of  this  social 
heritage  that  we  can  scarcely  realize  the  extent  to 


22  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

which  our  personal  behavior  is  governed  by  it. 

Personal  attitudes  are  determined  also  by  group 
stimulation.  A  group  may  possess  a  wonderfully 
fine  heritage,  it  may  have  conserved  splendid  cul- 
tural traditions,  and  have  become  so  self-satisfied 
with  its  glorious  past  that  it  offers  no  encourage- 
ment to  any  of  its  members  to  make  new  social  con- 
tributions and  thus  to  develop  human  personality. 
Under  such  a  condition  anyone  who  stirs  in  a  way 
to  criticize  the  past  may  be  heavily  penalized,  even 
imprisoned.  An  autocratic  political,  economic,  or 
social  class  of  people,  satisfied  with  their  current 
status  of  power  and  influence,  and  fearful  of  any 
change,  may  prevent  new  ideas  from  incubating. 
Personal  behavior  in  such  an  event  becomes  merely 
group  imitation. 

On  the  other  hand,  freedom  of  action  may  be  per- 
mitted or  even  encouraged  by  the  group.  Prizes 
may  be  offered  for  inventions.  Personal  opportuni- 
ties may  be  group-fostered,  and  personal  behavior 
may  assume  an  expansive  and  joyous  freedom. 

Sometimes  group  life  is  characterized  by  a  dull 
stagnation,  in  which  group  stimulation  is  at  the  zero 
mark.  At  another  time  group  life  may  be  throbbing 
with  energy  and  purpose.  Under  such  conditions, 
a  normal  growing  youth  is  stimulated  beyond  meas- 
ure— perhaps  to  lead  his  college  mates  in  scholar- 
ship, in  athletic  prowess,  or  in  debating.  Where 
missionary  teaching  is  common,  young  people  vol- 


THE  NATURE  OF  HUMAN  GROUPS     23 

unteer  for  the  foreign  field.  In  the  group  where 
boxing  is  honored  above  all  else,  the  members  are 
desirous  to  become  champion  users  of  the  glove.  In 
a  business  group  that  puts  a  premium  upon  enter- 
prise, young  men  are  stimulated  to  take  great  finan- 
cial risks.  In  a  Sierra  club,  the  members  are  con- 
strained to  undertake  new  and  difficult  mountain- 
climbing  feats. 

Personal  behavior  is  related  to  biological  inherit- 
ance. Phlegmatic  or  nervous  behavior  can  often 
be  traced  directly  to  the  influence  of  racial  stocks. 
A  strong  or  weak  biological  strain  is  definitely  ex- 
pressed in  terms  of  personal  behavior. 

A  Mozart  or  a  Mendelsohn  possess  special  in- 
herited qualities.  The  behavior  of  an  imbecile  is 
directly  traceable  to  heredity.  The  percentages  of 
both  the  highly  talented  and  the  mentally  deficient 
are  low ;  the  mass  of  a  given  population  are  charac- 
terized by  potential  ability  sufficient  to  guarantee  to 
each  person  a  useful  and  honored  career. 

Behavior  depends  also  on  personal  initiative,  a 
quality  which  may  be  inherited  either  biologically 
or  socially.  It  may  arise  in  answer  to  group  stim- 
ulation; or  it  may  be  more  or  less  independent  of 
biological  heritage,  social  heritage,  and  group  stim- 
ulation, and  represent  personality  in  its  most  dis- 
tinctive attitude.  Personality  includes  more  than 
the  sum  total  of  its  constitutent  parts ;  it  comprises 
a  precious  spiritual  element,  uniquely  expressed  in 


24  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

every  individual,  and  when    socialized,    endlessly 
useful,  and  imperishable. 

3.  The  Historical  Development  of  the  Hu- 
man Group.  Group  phenomena,  it  has  been  indi- 
cated, range  from  the  behavior  of  two  persons  cas- 
ually greeting  one  another  upon  the  street  to  the 
activities  of  the  entire  human  race.  As  a  back- 
ground for  considering  the  nature  of  common  group 
phenomena,  the  student  may  turn  his  attention  to 
the  whole  human  group.  A  vastness  of  numbers,  a 
marvelous  development  from  humble  beginnings, 
and  an  intricately  complex  array  of  social  activities 
and  institutions —  these  are  some  of  the  elemental 
facts.  The  human  group,  composed  of  nearly  2,000,- 
000,000  persons,  old  and  young,  can  hardly  be  visu- 
alized. If  all  these  human  beings  were  able-bodied 
adults  and  could  pass  by  a  reviewing  stand,  the  pro- 
cession practically  would  be  endless.  If  they  came 
in  single  file,  one  every  six  feet,  passing  by  at  the 
rapid  rate  of  one  a  second,  sixty  a  minute,  3,600  an 
hour,  day  and  night,  the  procession  would  continue 
for  more  than  half  a  century. 

Mankind  has  been  on  the  face  of  the  earth  much 
longer  than  scholars  once  thought.  The  most  reli- 
able investigators  in  this  field  state  that  the  history 
of  human  groups  upon  the  earth  covers  a  period  of 
great  length. 

The  remains  of  primitive  man  have  been  found 


THE  NATURE  OF  HUMAN  GROUPS     25 

in  a  region  extending  from  Java  through  India  to 
England.  From  this  central  strip  of  territory,  early 
human  groups  seem  to  have  migrated  far  and  wide. 
They  wandered  northeast  into  Mongolia  and  ad- 
joining territory,  and  they  migrated  southwest  into 
Africa.  It  appears  that  some  of  their  number  drifted 
from  Asia  across  the  Pacific  or  travelled  by  land 
to  America  in  prehistoric  times,  when  America  was 
connected  by  land  with  Asia  on  the  west  and 
with  Europe  on  the  east. 

Modern  knowledge  of  prehistoric  society  is  based 
on  several  factors. 

(1)  There  is  the  study  of  certain  parts  of  the 
human  skeleton  which  have  been  preserved  in  fossil 
state.    The  age  of  such  remains  is  determined  (a) 
by  the  nature  of  the  geological  strata  in  which  they 
are  imbedded,   (b)  by  the  types  of  the  associated 
fauna,  and  (c)  by  a  comparative  study  of  human 
skeletons. 

(2)  There  is  the  examination  of  implements  of 
various  kinds  which  owe  their  preservation  to  the 
almost  indestructible   nature   of   the   material   of 
which  they  are  composed.     (3)   Closely  related  to 
the  implements  of  flint,  in  the  study  of  prehistoric 
groups,  are  the  monuments  and  the  works  of  art. 
(4)    Further  information  concerning  the  nature  of 
prehistoric  groups  is  found  in  the  drawings  upon 
ancient  cave  walls. 

The  earliest  period  in  the  history  of  human  groups 


26  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

is  sometimes  called  the  Paleolithic  or  Old  Stone 
Age.  At  that  time  the  use  of  metals  was  not  known. 
While  stone  was  utilized  mainly,  other  materials 
such  as  bone,  horn,  shell,  and  wood  served  well  in 
the  manufacture  of  tools  and  weapons.  The  im- 
plements of  the  Paleolithic  Age  were  all  of  the  rud- 
est type;  they  were  neither  ground  nor  polished; 
they  were  simply  roughly  chipped.  In  the  Paleo- 
lithic period,  no  animals  seem  to  have  been  domes- 
ticated, and  fire  likewise  was  probably  unknown. 
Food  consisted  chiefly  of  uncooked  vegetables  and 
the  raw  flesh  of  fish  and  animals. 

An  interesting  picture  of  prehistoric  days  is  given 
by  R.  R.  Marett  of  Oxford,  who  was  a  member  of 
a  party  that  made  an  important  discovery  while 
excavating  in  Jersey,  one  of  the  islands  in  the  Eng- 
lish Channel.  A  prehistoric  hearth  was  uncovered. 
There  were  the  big  stones  which  had  propped  up  the 
fire.  There  were  the  ashes.  There  were  the  pieces 
of  decayed  bone,  which  proved  to  be  the  remains  of 
a  woolly  rhinoceros,  of  reindeer,  of  a  strange  ap- 
pearing horse,  in  other  words,  of  species  of  animals 
which  had  not  lived  in  that  given  region  for  thous- 
ands of  years,  and  which  indeed  have  long  been  ex- 
tinct. 

In  the  next  place,  the  food  heap  yielded  thirteen 
human  teeth — a  discovery  which  prompted  the 
question:  Did  the  beasts  eat  the  man,  or  the  man 
eat  the  beasts  ?  This  prehistoric  sketch  is  completed 


THE  NATURE  OF  HUMAN  GROUPS  27 

by  the  statement  that  there  many  coarse  flint  in- 
struments (knives),  chipped  only  on  one  side,  lying 
about. 

After  the  Paleolithic  came  the  Neolithic,  or  New 
Stone  Age.  Neolithic  implements  are  distinctly 
superior  to  Paleolithic,  and  represent  skill  of  a  high- 
er order.  They  were  made  of  many  kinds  of  stone 
besides  flint,  and  were  often  ground  to  an  edge  that 
was  sometimes  polished. 

An  important  distinction  between  Paleolithic  and 
Neolithic  remains  is  the  fact  that  among  the  latter 
are  found  pieces  of  crude  pottery.  In  Neolithic 
times  fire  was  used  for  human  purposes ;  the  method 
of  kindling  it  artificially  had  been  discovered. 
Cooked  food  supplemented  raw  food.  The  domesti- 
cation of  the  horse,  sheep,  ox,  goat,  pig,  and  dog  had 
taken  place;  and  helped  to  make  civilization  pos- 
sible. Cattle  were  used  to  some  extent  as  a  measure 
of  value.  Monuments  indicating  the  nature  of  re- 
ligious rites  of  primitive  groups  have  been  left  by 
Neolithic  peoples.  Fortifications  and  burial 
mounds,  especially  the  latter,  are  numerous;  in 
Ohio,  for  instance,  there  are  many  of  these  re- 
minders of  Neolithic  times. 

Then  came  the  so-called  Bronze  Age  of  human 
society.  The  discovery  and  use  of  metals  mark  a 
definite  step  in  human  progress.  It  seems  that  cop- 
per, in  its  native  condition  generally  preceded  its 
use  in  a  form  mixed  with  tin  or  zinc.  The  com- 


28  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

pound,  bronze,  was  much  harder  and  tougher,  and 
hence  more  useful.  As  a  measure  of  value  cattle 
were  supplanted  by  copper;  and  copper  bars,  used 
as  coins,  were  stamped  with  the  image  of  the  an- 
imals which  were  once  the  standards  of  value,  name- 
ly, the  cow,  sheep,  or  dog. 

It  is  believed  that  iron  was  first  used  about  1000 
B.C.,  at  which  time  the  so-called  Iron  Age  may  be 
said  to  have  begun.  Implements  were  now  made  of 
hard  and  valuable  metal,  iron.  The  Iron  Age,  how- 
ever, did  not  enter  upon  its  main  era  until  the  latter 
part  of  the  nineteenth  century  A.D.  in  England, 
when  the  use  of  steam  power  gave  to  the  world 
the  factory  system,  made  iron  and  steel  of  para- 
mount importance,  and  created  an  industrial  age. 

During  the  centuries  preceding  historic  times,  the 
development  of  tool-making  was  an  outstanding 
feature.  Migration  was  common.  Human  groups 
were  loosely  related  to  the  soil,  and  thus  were  on  the 
move  a  great  deal  of  the  time.  People  worked  co- 
operatively ;  house-building,  canoe-building,  fishing, 
hunting  were  conducted  by  groups  of  people  in 
communistic  fashion. 

It  has  been  said  by  O.  T.  Mason  that  whatever 
one's  belief  concerning  the  manner,  the  place,  and 
the  time  of  man's  advent  upon  the  earth,  a  study 
of  prehistoric  group  life  shows  that  man  was  at  first 
a  houseless,  unclothed  being,  without  experience  or 
skill — and  that  through  association  in  groups  he  has 


THE  NATURE  OF  HUMAN  GROUPS  29 

achieved  his  present  high  civilized  level. 

Within  historic  days,  the  chief  emphasis  in  hu- 
man society  is  no  longer  to  be  laid  upon  the  ma- 
terial of  which  human  implements  are  made  but 
rather  upon  psychical  and  social  phenomena.  Social 
attitudes  and  personal  behavior  are  now  vital  data. 
The  development  of  constructively-minded  and 
wholesome  personalities  in  and  through  group  life 
has  become  the  central  fielH  of  human  significance, 
and  the  main  theme  of  sociology. 

The  history  of  any  group  of  people  generally 
shows  eras  of  marked  advance  and  also  periods  of 
retrogression.  Human  society  itself,  since  the  days 
when  men  began  to  succeed  in  the  struggle  with  the 
higher  forms  of  animal  life  for  earthly  control,  and 
extending  to  the  present  day,  has  progressed  mar- 
velously. 

The  illustrations  of  social  progress  are  countless. 
For  example:  Compare  the  loose  family  life  of  the 
best  peoples  among  primitive  tribes  with  the  highly 
developed  forms  of  love  and  affection  that  now 
characterize  the  best  type  of  families.  Put  the  con- 
juries  of  medicine  men  or  the  practices  of  witch- 
craft alongside  the  achievements  of  Pasteur,  or 
Koch,  or  Carrell.  Consider  cattle  or  bars  of  iron 
as  media  of  exchange  in  early  economic  life  in  com- 
parison with  the  highly  organized  credit  sys- 
tems of  today.  Think  of  the  advance  from  govern- 
ment in  the  hands  of  a  despot  to  government  under 


30  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

the  direction  of  an  enlightened,  democratically- 
minded  people.  Compare  ethical  conduct  dic- 
tated by  a  thousand  years  of  custom  control 
to  ethical  conduct  as  the  outgrowth  of  ration- 
al processes  of  socialized  thinking.  Picture  the 
esthetic  effort  of  a  Bushman  playing  upon  one 
string  stretched  across  a  gourd,  in  comparison 
with  the  modern  rendition  of  Beethoven's  sym- 
phonies. Parallel  primitive  methods  of  preserv- 
ing information  through  laborious  remembering 
exertions  with  the  twentieth  century  lightning- 
like  printing  processes.  Think  of  the  animistic 
superstitions  of  early  man  in  the  light  of  the  highly 
rational,  and  broadly  social  interpretations  of  the 
finest  current  expressions  of  Christianity.  The  sim- 
ple associational  activities  of  a  Fuegian  are  kinder- 
garten in  size  and  quality  when  the  national  and 
international  associative  activities  of  a  President  of 
the  United  States  are  made  panoramic.  These  il- 
lustrations throw  light  on  the  fact  of  human  prog- 
ress. 

The  development  of  the  social  group  has  been 
deeply  affected  by  geographic,  biologic,  psychologic 
and  sociologic  factors.  These  conditioning  ele- 
ments, moreover,  have  been  instrumental  in  produc- 
ing a  variety  of  group  types.  In  this  process,  how- 
ever, survival  needs  and  psychic  interstimulation 
have  been  predominant.  There  are  the  family  and 
play  groups  wherein  fundamental  social  principles 


THE  NATURE  OF  HUMAN  GROUPS  31 

are  grasped.  There  is  the  occupational  group 
wherein  work-a-day  attitudes  are  produced.  There 
are  the  educational,  religious,  and  community 
groups  wherein  certain  large  universal  attitudes 
are  fostered.  There  are  the  rural  and  urban,  as^well 
as  racial,  divisions  of  the  population  with  their  at- 
tendant social  attitudes.  Then  there  are  the  prob- 
lems of  group  control  and  progress  which  concern 
the  welfare  of  every  member  of  all  groups.  This 
book  attempts  to  traverse  the  course  which  in  this 
paragraph  has  been  staked  out. 

Sociology  thus  deals  with  the  most  practical 
phases  of  everyday  life ;  it  is  one  of  the  most  broad- 
ening and  cultural  of  all  studies.  Any  member  of 
a  human  group  who  would  be  well  educated  must 
know  the  laws  of  group  life,  and  understand  thor- 
oughly the  nature  of  the~processes  by  which  group 
members  develop  unselfish  personalities. 

Sociology  is  not  a  propagandist  study.  Its  aim  is 
to  cyjca^e£_social  fa ct s ;  it  searches  for  all  theTTm- 
portant  data  on  all  sides  of  a  disputed  question ;  and 
it  presents  these  data  to  the  student  in  as  unprej- 
udiced a  manner  as  possible.  It  strives  to  be  in- 
ductive and  scientific;  it  is  a  scientific  study  of 
group  phenomena  and  processes  as  exhibited  in  per- 
sonal behavior. 

The  pupil  usually  finds  that  the  normal  results  of 
studying  sociology  include  a  more  social  point  of 
view,  an  increasing  dislike  for  narrow,  prejudiced 


32  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

attitudes,  and  a  socializing  of  behavior.  In  a  gen- 
uine and  fundamental  sense,  sociology  is  a  primary 
factor  in  building  a  just,  harmonious,  and  co-oper- 
ative personal  and  group  life. 


PROBLEMS 

1.  What  is  the  purpose  of  questions  for  discussion,  such 

as  those  at  the  close  of  the  chapters  of  this  book? 

2.  Should  students  sit  clam-like  in  class? 

3.  What  is  the  derivation  of  the  term,  sociology? 

4.  How  do  human  groups  resemble  animal  groups,  such  as 

the  pack  or  herd? 

5.  How  do  human  groups  differ  from  animal  groups? 

6.  To  how  many  social  groups  do  you  belong  at  present? 

7.  In  how  many  of  these  groups  did  you  become  a  member 

by  choice? 

8.  What  choices  do  you  make  that  are  more  influential  in 

your  life  than  choosing  persons  with  whom  to  asso- 
ciate ? 

9.  What  is  a  social  problem? 

10.  What  is  a  social  institution? 

11.  Why  have  you  begun  the  study  of  sociology? 

12.  Will  this  study  probably  make  you  a  more  useful  citizen 

or  a  more  successful  individual? 


CHAPTER  II 
GROUPS  AND  GEOGRAPHIC  FACTORS 


A  NATURAL  approach  to  the  study  of  sociology  is 
through  geography  and  geology.  These  sciences 
present  the  setting  of  the  human  panorama. 
Through  them  are  revealed  the  operation  of  the 
fundamental  processes  that  have  been  factors  in 
controlling  the  nature  of  associative  life. 

1.  The  Earth  as  Man's  Home.  The  earth  as 
the  home  of  human  groups  underwent  a  long  series 
of  changes  before  man  appeared  thereon.  The  few, 
crude  stone  implements  which  have  been  found  in 
the  deposits  belonging  to  the  comparatively  recent 
glacial  epochs  constitute  "  a  silent  testimony  to  the 
appearance  of  man." 

Then  came  the  long  struggle  between  the  earth 
and  human  groups,  and  between  various  species  of 
animal  life  in  prehistoric  epochs.  These  contests 
finally  ended  in  human  predominance  and  the  de- 
velopment of  civilization.  Behind  all  the  conflicts, 
however,  was  that  "orderly  and  world  embracing 
process  by  which  the  once  uninhabitable  globe  has 
come  to  be  man's  appointed  home." 


34  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

In  far-reaching  ways,  man  is  dependent  upon  the 
relations  which  the  earth  holds  to  the  remainder  of 
the  solar  system.  The  marvelous  findings  of  astron- 
omy have  enlarged  the  human  conception  of  the 
universe  a  thousand-fold.  The  length  of  the  day, 
the  seasons,  and  the  years  are  determined  by  the 
earth's  relation  to  the  sun.  Such  phenomena  as  the 
dependable,  daily  rising  of  the  sun  have  played  a 
leading  part  in  creating  man's  ideas  of  "order"  and 
"permanence."  The  safety  of  sea-faring  vessels  is 
related  to  the  position  of  the  stars.  Latitude  and 
longitude,  accurate  maps  of  continents  and  oceans, 
boundaries  of  estates  and  nations  are  determined 
through  reference  to  the  stars.  Endlessly  and  con- 
tinuously man  is  dependent  on  and  limited  by  the 
great  laws  of  the  universe  over  which  he  has  no  con- 
trol and  the  nature  of  which  he  does  not  fully  under- 
stand. 

2.  Influences  of  Soil  Fertility  and  Land  Area. 
The  place  or  location  of  human  groups  on 
the  earth  is  determined  by  geographic  influences. 
Among  primitive  peoples  especially,  the  domination 
of  geographic  conditions  was  marked.  Early  hu- 
man groups  developed  in  those  sections  of  the  earth 
where  food  could  be  easily  obtained.  The  first  large 
population  centers  arose  in  the  valleys  of  the  Eu- 
phrates, the  Ganges,  the  Yangtse-Kiang,  and  the 
Nile.  "The  first  dense  massing  of  human  popula- 


pROUPS  AND  GEOGRAPHIC  FACTORS         35 

tion  was  in  that  wonderful  valley,  six  hundred  miles 
long  with  an  average  breadth  of  seven  miles,  over 
which  every  summer  from  immemorial  time  the 
Nile  has  spread  the  rich  black  silt  of  the  Abysinnian 
hills."  Today  the  largest  aggregations  of  people 
are  located  not  only  in  the  valleys  that  have  been 
mentioned,  but  also  in  the  valleys  of  the  Po,  the 
Seine,  the  Rhine,  the  Thames,  the  Hudson,  and  the 
Mississippi. 

Human  groups  increase  most  rapidly  in  river 
valleys.  The  reason  for  this  conclusion  is  found  in 
the  fertility  of  the  soil  of  these  valleys ;  fertile  soil 
makes  possible  a  cheap  and  large  food  supply.  The 
Amazon  river  valley,  the  most  fertile  in  the  world,  is 
an  outstanding  exception.  Here,  however,  the  rain- 
fall is  so  excessive,  nature  is  so  flourishing,  insects 
and  wild  beasts  so  numerous,  pathogenic  bacteria 
so  virile — that  man  has  not  been  able  to  make  his 
power  felt.  He  has  been  almost  completely  baffled 
in  his  attempts  to  secure  control  over  rampant  na- 
ture. 

In  regions  where  the  soil  is  non-fertile  or  where 
lack  of  rainfall  has  created  barren,  boundless,  arid 
plains,  there  population  is  sparse  and  "restless,  root- 
less people"  are  found.  As  Ellen  C.  Semple  has 
said,  migration  alone  is  permanent;  and  although 
the  people  are  constantly  moving,  progress  stands 
still.  The  habit  of  migrating  on  the  part  of  prim- 
itive groups  does  not  permit  the  accumulation  of 


36  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

wealth  except  that  which  can  move  itself,  such  as 
flocks  and  herds.  The  supply  of  clothing  and  uten- 
sils is  meagre;  the  use  of  much  furniture  in  tents 
is  rare;  and  the  opportunity  to  attain  historical 
prominence  is  missing. 

In  desert  regions,  only  marauding  groups  survive, 
and  hence  the  term,  robber,  becomes  a  title  of  honor. 
The  harsh  conditions  of  desert  regions  make  the 
Arab  the  hardiest  and  bravest  of  human  beings.  A 
desert  environment  encourages  the  spirit  of  inde- 
pendence, but  checks  tendencies  toward  political  or- 
ganization. The  desert  has  been  pronounced  the 
last  part  of  the  earth  to  yield  to  conquest  by  out- 
side powers — because  of  the  brave,  independent 
spirit  of  the  inhabitants  and  because  of  the  difficulty 
in  overcoming  the  physical  conditions  of  the  en- 
vironment. 

The  harsh  desert  conditions  have  affected  the 
customs  of  the  people;  it  is  said,  for  example,  that 
an  ordinary  American  dinner  would  make  five  or 
six  meals  for  an  Arab.  The  opportunities  for  in- 
dividual growth  are  so  few  that  there  is  practically 
no  change  in  customs,  mode  of  life,  or  beliefs  from 
generation  to  generation. 

The  so-called  desert-born  genius  for  religion  may 
be  partly  explained  by  the  fact  that  the  human 
mind,  finding  little  of  concrete  interest,  develops  an 
impression  of  unity  and  a  gravitation  toward  mon- 
otheism in  the  human  mind  which  is  inclined  to- 


GROUPS  AND  GEOGRAPHIC  FACTORS         37 

ward  reflection  upon  religious  matters.  The  deserts 
of  Syria  and  Arabia  have  played  a  part  in  the  origin 
of  the  three  leading  monotheistic  religions  of  the 
world — Mohammedanism,  Judaism,  and  Christian- 
ity. 

The  soil  is  the  greatest  natural  resource  of  the 
earth.  It  is  a  source  of  all  life:  from  it,  in  part, 
comes  all  food,  the  materials  from  which  clothing  is 
made,  and  with  which  houses,  cities,  and  transpor- 
tation lines  are  built.  The  conservation  of  the  soil 
has  been  short-sightedly  neglected.  It  is  estimated 
that  in  the  United  States  alone  the  farms  lose  $500,- 
000,000  in  value,  yearly,  because  the  rich  top-soil  is 
allowed  to  be  washed  off  and  drained  into  the  rivers. 
It  is  a  common  custom  to  allow  the  cultivators  of 
the  soil  to  rob  it  steadily  of  the  elements  which  pro- 
duce large  crops  and  not  to  put  back  into  the  soil 
equivalent  returns.  Consequently  worn  out  farms 
have  become  numerous. 

Where  a  conservation  policy  has  been  pursued, 
the  situation  is  different.  In  certain  German  states 
that  have  been  cultivated  for  1800  years  or  more 
and  where  the  soil  is  not  naturally  so  productive  as 
in  the  United  States,  the  yield  of  wheat  averages 
twice  as  much  an  acre  as  in  the  latter  country. 
Every  agricultural  group  has  a  definite  obligation 
regarding  the  conservation  of  the  soil  for  the  well- 
being  of  future  generations. 

Inasmuch  as  the  need  for  conserving  not  only 


38  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

the  soil  but  all  natural  resources  is  a  single  problem, 
the  situation  regarding  the  conservation  of  minerals, 
forests,  and  water  power  will  be  noted  at  this  time. 
The  mineral  resources  of  a  country,  such  as  the 
United  States,  have  been  so  great  that  they  have 
been  treated  ruthlessly.  The  rush  of  a  few  people, 
for  instance,  to  turn  coal  into  money  has  resulted 
in  the  waste  of  one-fourth  to  one-half  of  it,  and  at 
a  terrific  toll  in  human  lives  and  suffering.  Natural 
gas  is  a  valuable  fuel,  limited  in  amount,  and  yet 
it  has  been  unpatriotically  and  recklessly  burned, 
especially  by  oil  field  promoters.  The  haste  of  a  few 
persons  to  convert  forests  into  money  has  meant 
that  of  all  the  trees  which  have  been  cut  down,  fully 
one-half  have  been  wasted  in  the  forests,,  either  left 
to  decay  or  to  be  burned  by  forest  fires. 

It  is  estimated  that  in  the  United  States  alont, 
there  is  running  idly  over  falls  and  dams,  more  than 
30,000,000  horse-power  of  energy.  It  is  further  es- 
timated that  enough  power  is  allowed  to  go  unused 
to  operate  every  factory,  to  turn  every  wheel,  to 
move  every  electric  car  and  to  supply  every  light 
and  power  station  in  the  country.  Conservation  does 
not  mean  the  locking  up  of  natural  resources  nor  a 
hindrance  to  social  progress  in  any  direction,  but 
that  individuals  and  corporate  groups  shall  be  re- 
quired to  use  these  resources  in  the  light  of  the  needs 
of  future  generations  of  people. 

Area,  like  soil  fertility,  and  natural  resources  in 


GROUPS  AND  GEOGRAPHIC  FACTORS         39 

general,  has  had  a  deep  influence  on  human  life. 
Groups  of  people  living  in  small  areas  differ  in 
thought  life  from  those  occupying  large  areas.  Is- 
lands, peninsulas,  and  mountain  valleys  have  been 
described  as  bars  to  expansion;  on  the  other  hand 
they  develop  close  relationships  between  the  mem- 
bers living  therein.  The  inhabitants  are  handi- 
capped by  numerical  weakness,  and  may  be  sur- 
rounded by  invading  groups.  Belgium,  Holland, 
and  Switzerland  exist  as  distinct  nations  on  suffer- 
ance of  the  large  powers — notwithstanding  for  in- 
stance Belgium's  defensive  strength  in  1914. 

The  people  who  live  in  small  areas  are  likely  to 
be  markedly  individualistic,  and  are  in  danger  of 
overestimating  their  own  size  and  importance.  In 
a  small  area,  as  Miss  Semple  states,  the  people  tend 
to  measure  distance  with  a  yardstick.  Plato,  a 
broad-minded  philosopher  who  lived  in  a  small-area 
environment,  conceived  of  an  ideal  democracy  as 
limiting  its  free  citizens  to  5040  heads  of  families, 
all  living  within  easy  reach  of  the  marketplace. 

The  larger  the  area,  the  more  certain  is  the  guar- 
antee of  group  permanence,  because  there  are  more 
natural  resources,  more  occupational  activities,  and 
more  chances  for  personal  achievement.  The  larger 
the  area  under  one  political  control,  the  greater  the 
economic  and  political  independence.  As  a  result 
of  its  vast  area  and  extensive  resources,  the  United 
States  has  been  enabled  to  maintain  a  protective 


40  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

tariff.  The  immense  area  of  Russia  has  been  called 
the  military  ally  on  which  she  can  most  surely 
count;  the  length  of  the  road  to  Moscow  was  un- 
doubtedly a  leading  factor  in  turning  Napoleon's 
victorious  march  into  a  debacle. 

A  people  who  occupy  a  large  area  are  sooner  or 
later  likely  to  have  many  contacts  with  other  peo- 
ples, easy  access  to  ocean  highways,  and  oppor- 
tunities to  establish  many  international  relation- 
ships. A  large  area  gives  individuals  ultimately  a 
wide  outlook  on  life,  and  nations  a  continental  at- 
titude. 

Area  includes  location.  The  location  of  the 
Phoenicians  enabled  them  to  become  the  middle- 
men between  the  Orient  and  the  Occident.  The 
location  of  Holland  at  the  mouth  of  the  Rhine 
waterway  helped  that  nation  to  maintain  for  several 
centuries  maritime  supremacy  of  the  world.  The 
out-of-the-way  location  of  the  Isle  of  Man  pre- 
vented the  inhabitants  from  coming  in  contact  with 
new  and  progressive  ideas. 

3.  Effects  of  Mountain  and  Ocean  Environ- 
ments. Mountains  usually  stand  as  majestic  but 
inert  masses  in  the  midst  of  growing  civilizations. 
Mountain  passes  alone  are  used.  These  nature- 
made  thoroughfares  draw  to  themselves  migration, 
travel,  trade,  and  military  expeditions;  they  are 
traversed  alike  by  undisciplined  hordes,  organized 


GROUPS  AND  GEOGRAPHIC  FACTORS         41 

armies,  wagon  trains,  and  transcontinental  high- 
ways. 

Mountains  are  sparsely  populated;  a  very  small 
percentage  of  the  world's  population  lives  5000  feet 
or  more  above  sea  level.  Most  of  the  civilized 
groups  of  the  world  live  where  the  altitude  is  be- 
tween 1000  feet  and  100  feet.  In  the  high  regions 
the  potential  food  supply  is  scarce,  and  in  the  low 
regions,  for  example,  below  sea  level,  the  health 
conditions  are  poor. 

Mountain  barriers,  notes  Miss  Semple,  whose 
splendid  analysis  is  accepted  in  the  following  para- 
graphs, are  rarely  impartial.  One  slope  is  generally 
steep;  and  the  other,  gentle.  On  the  gentler  slope 
is  found  a  wide  zone  of  food  supply  and  habitation. 
On  one  side  of  the  Himalayas  is  the  vast  population 
of  India ;  on  the  other,  the  scattered  nomadic  tribes 
of  Tibet.  The  western  side  of  the  Rockies  feels  the 
warm  air  of  the  Pacific  winds ;  the  eastern  slope  ex- 
periences in  winter  the  rigor  of  a  subarctic  climate, 
in  summer  the  heat  of  the  subtropics. 

High  altitudes  with  their  long  winters  stimulate 
industries  in  the  home.  Almost  everywhere  native 
mountain  industries  have  reached  a  noticeable  de- 
gree of  specialization.  The  carving  of  articles  from 
wood,  the  manufacture  of  artistic  metal  work  in 
silver  and  copper,  the  manufacture  of  the  well- 
known  Kashmir  shawls,  and  of  the  finest  violin 
strings  in  the  world  indicate  the  nature  of  mountain 


42  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

industries. 

Maintenance  of  life  in  high  altitudes  is  always 
a  struggle;  the  biological  principle  of  the  survival 
of  the  fittest  operates.  The  spirit  of  independence 
is  engendered.  The  conquest  of  mountain  peoples 
is  always  expensive,  for  an  invader  has  two  enemies 
to  fight,  the  rough  mountain  topography  and  the 
armed  foe. 

Every  aspect  of  the  environment  hinders  social 
integration.  Political  dismemberment  is  an  inher- 
ent weakness  of  mountain  peoples ;  political  consol- 
idation is  forced  upon  them  from  without.  The 
Swiss  Republic  may  be  cited  as  the  result,  in  part, 
of  threatened  encroachments  from  outside  groups. 

Mountain  environments  produce  conservatism, 
for  little  reaches  the  mountain  dweller  from  outside 
peoples  to  stimulate  him.  Religion  remains  ortho- 
dox, and  antiquated  customs  and  languages  abound. 
The  prevailing  motto  is :  To  have  and  to  hold.  The 
mountains  have  been  described  as  museums  of  so- 
cial antiquity. 

Mountain  dwellers  are  suspicious  of  strangers. 
As  instanced  by  feuds,  mountain  peoples  are  char- 
acterized by  pronounced  loves  and  hates.  When 
they  move  to  the  plains  and  cities  to  live,  they  are 
likely  to  be  formidable  competitors,  because  as  Miss 
Semple  has  summarized  their  traits,  they  possess 
strong  muscles,  unjaded  nerves,  iron  purposes  and 
indifference  to  luxury. 


GROUPS  AND  GEOGRAPHIC  FACTORS         43 

A  proximity  to  coast  lines  and  bodies  of  water, 
such  as  an  ocean,  arouses  unique  feelings  within  the 
human  mind.  The  "flow  of  stream  and  ebb  of  tide 
have  sooner  or  later,  stirred  the  curiosity  of  land- 
born  barbarians,"  and  the  "eternal  unrest  of  mov- 
ing waters"  has  constituted  a  continual  knocking 
at  the  door  of  human  inertia.  In  timid  fashion,  in- 
voluntarily, or  boldly,  men  have  followed  ocean 
currents  and  trade  winds  to  the  ends  of  the  earth. 

The  ocean  has  called  forth  inventions  from  the 
mind  of  man :  first,  floats  and  rafts ;  then  devices 
for  securing  displacement;  and  in  recent  decades, 
floating  sea  monsters  and  submarines.  The  ocean 
has  made  possible  special  occupations  for  human 
beings ;  thousands  of  people  are  employed  as  fisher- 
men, and  sailors,  or  in  the  navy,  on  ocean  liners,  in 
the  canneries,  and  in  shipbuilding. 

Unthinking  people  have  sometimes  lamented  the 
fact  that  the  earth's  surface  is  three-fourths  water 
and  one-fourth  land.  Science  has  shown  however 
that  human  beings  have  survived  because  they  could 
meet  the  conditions  of  a  water  surface  that  is  three 
times  as  extensive  as  the  land  surface.  The  world 
would  have  been  poorer  if  the  proportion  of  water 
and  land  had  been  reversed.  The  different  branches 
of  the  human  family  would  have  resembled  one  an- 
other more  closely,  and  similarity  of  types  might 
have  hindered  development.  Furthermore,  it  is 
necessary  that  a  large  proportion  of  the  earth's  sur- 


44  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

face  be  covered  with  water,  in  order  to  furnish  a 
rainfall  sufficient  for  the  life  on  the  remaining  por- 
tion. If  only  one-fourth  of  the  earth's  surface  were 
a  water  surface,  the  remaining  three-fourths  would 
probably  be  a  vast  desert. 

A  population  residing  near  the  mouths  of  rivers 
has  geographic  advantages.  It  has  opportunity  to 
develop  inland  trade  and  ocean  commerce,  and  on 
the  other  hand,  it  tends  to  become  cosmopolitan. 
The  fertile,  alluvial  soil  yields  large  returns.  The 
population  who  live  at  the  mouths  of  rivers  can 
bottle  up  economically  and  politically  the  peoples 
who  live  near  the  sources  of  these  rivers. 

A  river  and  its  branches  is  a  system  of  communi- 
cation. It  connects  the  inhabitants  of  its  basin  with 
the  people  "on  far-off,  unseen  shores."  A  river  is 
a  common  servant  of  the  life  of  the  basin.  Rivers 
unite  people;  they  are  poor  social  boundaries,  be- 
cause the  people  living  on  either  side  of  the  main 
current  have  similar  life  conditions.  They  tend  to 
think  and  act  alike. 

4.  Climatic  Control.  Climate  fixes  the  location 
of  human  groups.  Arctic  latitudes,  high  altitudes, 
and  arid  regions  draw  the  dead-line  for  all  life.  A 
certain  range  of  temperature  and  of  moisture  is  es- 
sential to  all  those  forms  of  life  upon  which  human 
existence  depends. 

A  mean  annual   temperature  of  approximately 


GROUPS  AND  GEOGRAPHIC  FACTORS         45 

fifty  degrees  Fahrenheit  seems  to  be  best  for  human 
progress,  and  of  seventy  degrees  is  enervating,  while 
an  average  of  thirty  degrees  gives  mankind  too 
many  obstacles  to  overcome.  In  continental  United 
States  the  mean  annual  temperature  is  fifty-three 
degrees ;  the  greater  density  of  population  is  found 
where  the  average  ranges  from  forty-five  to  fifty- 
five  degrees.  On  either  side  of  these  limits  the 
density  of  population  rapidly  diminishes.  Less 
than  one-third  of  the  inhabitants  live  where  the  an- 
nual temperature  is  over  fifty-five  degrees,  and  only 
one-hundredth  of  the  population  live  where  the 
average  temperature  is  seventy  degrees  and  over. 
Ellsworth  Huntington  estimates  that  an  average 
temperature  of  forty  degrees  in  winter  and  of  sixty- 
four  in  summer  is  best  for  human  stimulation. 

Thirty  to  fifty  inches  of  rainfall  seem  to  be  neces- 
sary for  the  growth  of  vegetable  life,  upon  which 
domesticated  animals  and  man  live.  No  groups 
of  people  of  significance  have  developed  excepting 
in  the  Nile  valley,  where  the  rainfall  is  ten  inches 
or  less  a  year,  unless  irrigation  methods  are  used. 
A  hundred  inches  or  over  of  rainfall  give  a  growth 
of  vegetable  life  too  luxuriant  for  mankind  to  con- 
trol with  ease. 

Humidity,  which  refers  to  the  amount  of  moisture 
in  the  air  in  proportion  to  the  amount  which  the  air 
at  any  particular  temperature  is  capable  of  holding, 
is  another  influential  climatic  factor  in  human  life. 


46  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

A  high  or  low  humidity  is  equally  harmful,  produc- 
ing nervousness  and  lowering  vitality.  A  relative 
humidity  from  seventy  to  eighty  per  cent  is  the 
most  favorable. 

Another  important  influence  in  human  life  is 
climatic  variability.  A  succession  of  sunshine  days 
or  of  rainy  days  is  equally  monotonous  and  pro- 
ductive of  nervousness.  Human  beings  are  partly 
the  products  of  change;  and  therefore,  unchanging 
weather  conditions  are  irritating.  Days  of  sunshine 
alternating  with  days  of  cloudiness  and  rain  is  a 
desirable  climatic  condition. 

A  combination  of  proper  temperature,  humidity, 
and  weather  variability  factors  is  difficult  to  find. 
According  to  the  map  of  climatic  energy  which  Mr. 
Huntington  has  prepared,  the  North  Eastern,  North 
Central  and  Middle  Western  States  of  the  United 
States,  England,  Ireland,  France,  Northern  Italy, 
Czecho-Slovakia,  Austria,  Switzerland,  Denmark, 
Belgium,  Holland,  and  southern  Scandinavia  lie 
within  the  zone  of  most  favorable  climatic  condi- 
tions in  the  world.  It  is  interesting  to  compare  Mr. 
Huntington's  map  of  climatic  energy  with  the  map 
of  civilization,  noticing  how  the  latter  parallels  the 
former. 

Climate  essentially  dictates  what  crops  shall  be 
raised.  It  affects  radically  the  size  of  the  harvest, 
and  determines  as  a  rule  what  herds  of  animals 
shall  be  kept,  whether  reindeer,  camels,  llamas, 


GROUPS  AND  GEOGRAPHIC  FACTORS         47 

horses,  or  cattle.  It  influences  extensively  the  nature 
and  amount  of  man's  food  and  clothing  and  the 
type  of  his  dwelling. 

In  general  there  is  a  rather  close  correspondence 
between  the  climate  of  a  region  and  the  tempera- 
ment of  the  individual  peoples  living  therein.  The 
northern  peoples  of  Europe  are  more  or  less  ener- 
getic, provident,  and  thoughtful  rather  than  emo- 
tional, cautious  rather  than  impulsive.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  southern  peoples  of  the  sub-tropical  Med- 
iterranean basin  are  easygoing,  gay,  emotional,  and 
imaginative.  In  the  colder  habitats  mankind  is 
more  domestic  than  in  the  warmer.  With  the 
Southerners  of  the  Tropics,  the  prevailing  rule  is : 
Easy  come,  easy  go.  They  therefore  feast,  and  then 
famine;  they  suffer  greatly  in  food  crises.  As  Miss 
Semple  has  said,  a  cold  climate  puts  a  steadying 
hand  upon  the  human  heart  and  brain,  and  paints 
life  with  an  autumn  tinge. 

Tropical  and  temperate  zones  are  complementary 
regions  of  trade.  The  hot  belt  of  the  earth  produces 
numerous  useful  forms  of  life  that  cannot  survive 
in  colder  countries.  A  much  shorter  list  of  products 
combined,  however,  with  greater  human  activity 
and  efficiency,  is  found  in  the  Temperate  Zone. 

The  migration  of  people  from  cold  to  tropical 
regions  is  followed  by  an  enervation  of  the  individ- 
ual and  a  loss  of  group  efficiency.  These  results  are 
partly  due  to  debilitating  heat,  -and  partly  to  easier 


48  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

conditions  of  living.  Germans  for  example  who 
colonized  portions  of  Brazil  have  shown  deteriora- 
tion. 

An  excellent  summary  of  climatic  influences  up- 
on man  has  been  made  by  Miss  Semple.  Human 
groups  first  appeared  in  the  sub-tropics,  but  devel- 
oped to  modern  levels  of  civilization  in  the  Temper- 
ate Zone.  Where  they  have  gone  into  the  Tropics 
they  have  suffered  arrested  development.  To  the  ex- 
tent that  the  Tropics  was  man's  nursery,  it  has  kept 
him  a  child.  If  the  subtropics  was  the  cradle  of  hu- 
manity, then  the  temperate  regions  have  been  the 
cradle  of  civilization.  It  was  chiefly  when  human 
groups  pushed  out  into  the  Temperate  Zone  that 
they  progressed.  In  other  words,  the  Temperate 
Zone  provides  about  enough  stimuli  and  enough 
obstacles  for  the  maximum  advance  of  humanity. 

Although  Miss  Semple  has  exaggerated  when  she 
declares  that  man  is  a  product  of  the  earth's  sur- 
face, she  has  brought  the  climatic  and  other  geo- 
graphic influences  to  the  fore  with  needed  and  lucid 
emphasis.  It  is  partly  true  that  the  earth  has 
mothered  man,  has  fed  him,  has  set  him  tasks,  has 
directed  his  thoughts,  and  has  confronted  him  with 
difficulties  that  have  strengthened  his  body  and  de- 
veloped his  mental  outlook.  It  is  quite  true  that 
the  geographic  factors  "in  the  long  history  of  hu- 
man development  have  been  operating  strongly  and 
operating  persistently."  They  have  been  relatively 


GROUPS  AND  GEOGRAPHIC  FACTORS         49 

stable  forces ;  they  have  rarely  slept. 

It  is  also  true  that  man  has  been  so  noisy  about 
the  way  that  he  has  conquered  Nature  and  that 
"Nature  has  been  so  silent  in  her  persistent  influ- 
ence over  man,"  that  the  geographic  processes  in 
group  life  are  frequently  overlooked.  An  age-long 
problem  with  which  mankind  has  been  dealing  is 
the  struggle  with  the  physical  environment.  In  the 
early  days  of  the  race  the  geographic  factors  dom- 
inated more  or  less  completely  the  advancement  of 
man.  During  the  succeeding  centuries  there  follow- 
ed a  world-wide  powerful  conflict.  Today  human 
dependence  on  nature  is  unquestioned,  but  is  far 
less  conspicuous  and  arbitrary  than  in  early  times. 
Civilized  man  is  not  as  subject  to  the  caprices  of  na- 
ture as  in  the  jungle  days.  He  is  mastering  many 
elements  in  both  time  and  space.  Special  progress  is 
characterized  by  a  decreasing  amount,  relatively,  of 
individual  attention  to  physical  matters  and  by  an 
increasing  degree  of  thoughtful  interest  in  the 
higher  spiritual  and  associative  phases  of  life.  The 
need  for  socialized  attitudes  cannot  be  overesti- 
mated. Out  of  different  geographic  environments 
have  come  different  races,  industries,  governments, 
and  attitudes — all  combining  to  form  "a  great  soci- 
ological puzzle." 

Man's  interest  in  material  inventions  has  outrun 
his  development  of  spiritual  controls.  He  has  con- 
cocted gigantic  engines  of  war  and  destructive  gases 


50  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

before  he  has  established  a  world-wide  community 
of  interests.  As  a  result  nation  groups  with  selfish 
purposes  stride  pompously  forward  with  flashing 
bayonets  to  their  own  destruction.  All  groups  that 
have  acquired  political  or  economic  power  before 
mastering  their  anti-social  impulses  have  perished. 
The  need  is  urgent  for  groups,  particularly  nations, 
to  develop  systems  of  group  and  personal  control 
based  on  socialized  motives  before  they  acquire  con- 
trol over  the  physical  forces  of  Nature. 

PROBLEMS 

1.  At  what  temperature  can  you  study  best? 

2.  Can  you  work  better  on  a  cloudy  day  or  on  a  clear  day? 

3.  Is  it  a  matter  of  accident  that  the  weather  is  a  topic  of 

conversation  the  world  over? 

4.  Explain  the  statement  that  the  Tropics  is  the  cradle  of 

humanity. 

5.  In  what  sense  is  the  Temperate  Zone  the  cradle  and 

school  of  civilization? 

6.  Why  is  the  term,  robber,  a  title  of  honor  in  the  Arabian 

deserts  ? 

7.  Why  do  people  who  live  in  small  areas  measure  life 

with  a  yardstick? 

8.  How  do  you  interpret  the  statement  that  "the  eternal  un- 

rest of  moving  waters  has  knocked  at  the  door  of 
human  inertia"? 

9.  Why  are  mountaineers  conservative? 

10.  Why  are  the  hates  and  loves  of  mountaineers  so  pro- 
nounced ? 


GROUPS  AND  GEOGRAPHIC  FACTORS         51 

11.  Why  are  mountaineers  independent  in  attitude? 

12.  How  do  you  explain  geographically  the  gaiety  of  open- 

air  peoples? 

13.  Explain  the  superstitiousness  of  sailors? 

14.  Explain  the  suggestibility  of  people  who  live  on  monot- 

onous plains. 

15.  Explain  the  general  orthodoxy  of  farmers. 

16.  Under  what  conditions  might  a  large  population  develop 

in  the  Amazon  valley? 

17.  What  geographic  factors  help  to  determine  the  location 

of  cities? 

18.  What  geographic  factors  influenced  the  location  of  the 

city  in  which  or  near  which  you  live? 

19.  Why  have  people  developed  their  natural  resources  be- 

fore developing  socialized  attitudes? 


CHAPTER  III 
GROUPS  AND  BIOLOGIC  FACTORS. 


BIOLOGIC  influences  in  group  life,  unlike  the  geo- 
graphic factors,  are  subjective.  They  influence  the 
members  of  the  group  through  innate,  internal 
mechanisms;  they  operate  from  within  individuals. 
There  is  a  sense,  however,  in  which  biologic  tenden- 
cies are  objective,  namely,  they  have  originated  in 
the  past  and  often  influence  the  individual  in  mech- 
anistic ways.  Biology  is  fundamental  to  sociol- 
ogy because  it  introduces  the  student  to  life  and 
the  laws  of  life.  Associative  life,  particularly  human 
life,  is  a  phase  of  all  life,  and  subject  to  the  same 
antecedents  and  principles  of  operation.  It  is  wise 
therefore  to  consider  certain  biologic  influences  in 
group  life. 

1.  Heredity  and  Variation.  No  individual 
chooses  his  heredity;  he  cannot  change  his  instinct- 
ive tendencies,  although  if  he  begins  early  enough 
in  life,  or  if  his  parents  begin  to  help  him  from  birth 
or  before,  he  may  acquire  control  over  these  ten- 
dencies, modify  them,  and  even  re-direct  their 
streams  of  energy.  Biological  heredity  must  be 


GROUPS  AND  BIOLOGIC  FACTORS  53 

"taken  cognizance  of  by  every  person.  One  may  learn 
in  what  ways  his  behavior  is  determined  by  life 
forces  over  which  he  has  no  control,  and  what  life 
factors  he  may  master.  His  stature,  the  color  of  his 
eyes  and  hair,  the  shape  of  his  nose,  his  physical 
construction  and  organism,  and  his  physical  char- 
acters, or  characteristics,  including  instinctive  and 
temperamental  predispositions  are  determined  for 
him.  In  fact  his  biological  inheritance  is  practically 
beyond  his  control.  Only  in  its  psychical  phase 
can  he  rise  superior  to  it. 

Characteristics,  or  characters,  as  the  biologist 
uses  the  term,  seem  to  be  transmitted  by -units.  The 
color  of  the  eye,  for  example,  is  a  single  unit  char- 
acter that  may  be  inherited  by  either  parent.  Thus 
the  physical  and  psychical  characters  of  an  individ- 
ual apparently  are  compounded  units,  inherited  as 
units  from  one  parent  or  the  other  or  from  other 
persons  in  the  line  of  descent. 

Furthermore,  these  unit  characters  are  inherited 
in  a  more  or  less  definite  ratio.  If  one  parent  has 
brown  eyes  and  comes  from  a  pure  brown-eyed 
stock,  and  if  the  other  parent  has  pure  blue  eyes  and 
comes  from  a  similar  stock,  about  seventy-five  per 
cent  of  the  children  will  inherit  brown  eyes.  Since 
brown  and  blue  are  inherited  in  the  ratio  approxi- 
mately of  three  to  one,  brown  is  called  the  dominant 
color  and  blue  the  recessive. 

In  the  three  cases  in  which  brown  eyes  are  in- 


54  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

herited  to  the  one  case  of  inheritance  of  blue,  it  is 
probable  that  in  only  one  case  are  pure  brown  eyes 
inherited  and  that  in  the  other  two  instances  the 
result  is  hybrid  brown.  The  latter  color  is  delusive ; 
while  the  brown  alone  is  visible,  there  is  present  a 
recessive  blue  which  can  be  inherited  by  offspring. 
It  is  impossible  to  distinguish  the  pure  brown  (from 
which  blue  cannot  be  inherited)  from  the  hybrid 
brown  (from  which  the  recessive  blue  may  be  in- 
herited), except  by  observation  of  the  offspring  of 
the  given  individual.  It  is  therefore  essential  to 
study  at  least  the  immediate  ancestors  of  a  person, 
if  one  would  know  the  type  of  offspring  he  will  pro- 
duce. The  inheritance  of  unit  characters  and  the 
operation  of  the  laws  of  dominance  and  recessive- 
ness  are  phases  of  the  Mendelian  laws  of  inherit- 
ance, named  after  Mendel,  who  first  discovered 
them  while  experimenting  with  garden  peas. 

It  has  been  found  upon  a  study  of  a  large  number 
of  cases  that  with  a  few  exceptions,  offspring  devi- 
ate less  than  their  parents  from  the  average  of  the 
whole  group — there  is  a  tendency  to  regress  to  the 
group  average.  This  law  of  regression  partly  causes 
group  stability  of  characters ;  it  also  partly  explains 
why  the  children  of  geniuses  rarely  possess  the 
ability  of  their  parents. 

It  appears  that  defects  of  the  physical  and  neural 
structure  of  the  human  organism  may  be  inherited. 
When  the  father  and  mother  are  related,  they  are 


GROUPS  AND  BIOLOGIC  FACTORS  55 

likely  to  have  the  same  weak  strains,  and  offspring 
are  therefore  in  increased  danger,  perhaps  twofold, 
of  inheriting  physical  and  mental  defects. 

Human  characteristics,  such  as  poverty,  delin- 
quency, and  old  age,  per  se  are  not  inherited.  In 
the  case  pf  pauperism  or  delinquency  mental  de- 
fectiveness  may  have  been  inherited.  The  inherit- 
ance of  feeble-mindedness  and  a  phlegmatic  tem- 
perament may  lead  to  poverty;  while  the  inherit- 
ance of  feeble-mindedness  and  an  energetic  temper- 
ament is  likely  to  result  in  delinquency  and  crime. 
In  the  case  of  old  age,  or  longevity,  traits  or  char- 
acters such  as  high  vital  resistance  to  disease  bac- 
teria, and  sound  bodily  reactions  and  tissues  have 
probably  been  inherited.  These  characteristics  to- 
gether with  a  favorable  environment  guarantee  old 
age,  or  a  long  life. 

Every  person  is  subject  to  the  biological  laws  not 
only  of  heredity  but  of  variation.  Variations  from 
parent  types  appear  during  the  organism's  period 
of  development.  Little  is  yet  known  concerning 
the  cause  or  the  operation  of  biological  variation. 
There  are  two  types  of  variation:  variability  and 
mutation.  Variability  refers  to  small  fluctuations 
in  any  and  every  characteristic  but  always  center- 
ing about  an  average  or  mean.  Of  a  thousand  child- 
ren of  given  parents  it  is  possible  to  determine  with 
a  fair  degree  of  accuracy  their  general  distribution, 
for  example,  as  to  height.  It  can  be  told  before- 


56  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY     y 

hand  with  a  reasonable  degree  of  accuracy  how 
many  of  the  thousand  children  will  vary  three  Li- 
ches  or  more  either  way  from  the  average  height  of 
the  parents  taken  as  a  group. 

Mutations  are  abrupt  changes  from  the  average 
or  type  of  the  parents  to  a  new  standard,  which  be- 
comes a  new  center  of  variability.  In  the  case  of 
variability  the  offspring  tend  to  approach  nearer  the 
group  average  than  do  the  immediate  parents.  In 
the  case  of  mutations  the  offspring  desert  the  old 
group  average  and  establish  a  new  average — ap- 
proximately that  of  the  immediate  parents.  The 
appearance  of  a  mutant  thus  indicates  the  begin- 
ning of  a  new  species  or  at  least  a  modification  of  an 
old  species. 

A  person  who  is  a  born  genius  may  be  a  mutant 
in  the  biological  sense.  At  any  rate  the  appearance 
of  born  geniuses  is  as  little  explained  as  the  genesis 
of  biological  mutants.  It  may  be  noted  that  born 
genuises  seem  to  be  born  as  frequently  in  the  hovel 
as  in  the  palace,  and  of  poor  parents  as  among  the 
wealthy. 

2.  Organic  and  Social  Evolution.  The  dis- 
cussion of  heredity  and  variation  has  illustrated  an- 
other biological  law,  that  of  evolution.  The  adult 
evolves  from  the  child  and  the  child  from  the  in- 
fant, and  the  latter  from  the  union  of  two  germ 
cells.  Complex  forms  of  life  evolve  from  simpler 


GROUPS  AND  BIOLOGIC  FACTORS  57 

life  forms.  The  process  is  baffling  to  science,  and 
accompanied  by  an  infinite  number  of  changes  and 
creations,  revealing  the  miraculous  work  of  nature 
and  God. 

Evolutionary  explanations  account  for  the  grossly 
animal  elements  in  human  nature;  they  lead  back 
not  only  to  animal  but  to  mechanistic  and  mater- 
ialistic explanations.  They  do  not  explain  the  con- 
tinual introduction  of  new  elements,  of  spiritual 
creation,  or  of  idealistic  factors. 

Biological  evolution  has  revealed  not  only  some 
of  the  laws  of  heredity  and  variation,  but  has  made 
clear  the  nature  of  the  struggle  for  existence  and  of 
the  law  of  the  survival  of  the  fittest.  It  has  shown 
how  nature  has  often  exercised  a  harsh  and  rigorous 
hand,  awarding  the  prizes  of  life  to  the  physically 
strongest  and  the  psychically  shrewdest. 

Biological  evolution  also  reveals  the  law  of  co- 
operation. Individuals  who  co-operate  well  have 
a  survival  advantage.  Animals  who  co-operate 
best  have  the  best  chance  of  survival.  Group  life 
itself  is  therefore  advantageous ;  the  "fittest  to  sur- 
vive" may  be  those  who  co-operate  well.  The  "fit- 
test to  survive"  however  may  be  the  most  brutal 
and  selfish  among  the  lower  forms  of  life;  but  an 
evolution  in  method,  from  selfish  contention  to  so- 
cialized co-operation,  changes  the  operation  of  the 
"fittest  to  survive"  principle. 

Biological  evolution  is  paralleled  by  group  or  so- 


58  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

cial  evolution.  On  the  lowest  plane,  groups  con- 
tend with  one  another  selfishly  and  destructively. 
Groups  with  low  standards  seek  to  gain  control  of 
other  groups  for  selfish  advantage.  They  are  shrewd 
and  deceitful  in  dealing  with  one  another.  They 
rush  at  each  other,  as  two  villains  with  murder  in 
their  eyes. 

As  they  evolve,  they  develop  co-operative  habits, 
learn  to  respect  each  other's  virtues,  and  to  heed  an 
authority  higher  than  each.  The  nation  groups  of 
the  world  today  are  struggling  toward  the  establish- 
ment of  a  higher  world  authority,  of  laws  of  arbi- 
tration, and  of  a  world  community  spirit.  The 
group  once  best  fit  to  survive  was  the  brutal  and 
deceitful;  the  group  of  the  future  best  fit  to  sur- 
vive will  be  the  one  whose  members  respect  the  au- 
thority of  a  large  group  consciousness. 

3.  Vitality  and  Eugenic  Control.  With  the 
increasing  knowledge  of  the  laws  of  heredity,  varia- 
tion, and  evolution,  scientists  such  as  Burbank 
have  developed  highly  modified  forms  of  plant  and 
animal  life.  In  recent  years  the  study  of  the  laws  of 
inheritance  in  the  human  realm  has  produced  sig- 
nificant results.  This  new  movement  is  known  as 
Eugenics,  a  science  which  was  initiated  in  England 
by  Francis  Galton  a  few  decades  ago.  As  the  term 
eugenics  implies  the  science  aims  to  work  out  a 
program  whereby  every  child  may  be  well  born.  The 


GROUPS  AND  BIOLOGIC  FACTORS  59 

science  endeavors  to  develop  the  principles  of  hered- 
ity in  their  application  to  human  life. 

One  eugenic  method  is  to  discourage  by  educa- 
tional and  legal  means  the  marriage  of  persons  who 
are  unfit  physically  and  mentally.  The  aim  is  to 
prevent  unworthy  parenthood.  It  is  planned  to 
segregate  feeble-minded  men  and  women  by  sexes 
in  public  institutions  and  thus  to  prevent  them  from 
reproducing  their  kind.  It  is  also  planned  to  forbid 
the  marriage  of  those  persons  whose  health  is  below 
a  certain  standard.  In  line  with  this  idea  some 
members  of  the  clergy  have  announced  that  they 
would  unite  in  marriage  only  those  persons  who 
produced  health  certificates  from  a  reputable  phy- 
sician. In  this  connection  it  may  be  added  that  it 
is  within  the  power  of  the  government  to  raise  by 
degrees  the  standards  of  health  demanded  of  those 
who  desire  a  license  to  marry.  Thus  the  eugenist 
hopes  to  secure  a  more  healthy  race  of  men  and 
women. 

A  second  and  more  constructive  method  is  to  es- 
tablish in  public  opinion  new  and  higher  standards 
concerning  marriage.  At  present,  attractions  such 
as  wealth  or  titles  or  social  positions  too  often  de- 
termine marriage.  If  a  marriageable  person  is 
wealthy,  he  is  considered  highly  desirable— irre- 
spective of  possible  physical  and  moral  leprosy.  The 
eugenist  urges  that  a  sound  physique  and  heredity 
be  ranked  first,  and  wealth,  or  social  position  sec- 


60  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

ond.  Wealth  without  health  is  an  entirely  false 
marriage  attraction. 

Thus  sound  heredity,  high  vitality,  and  excellent 
health  are  emphasized  as  more  fundamental  mar- 
riage attractions  than  titles  or  other  forms  of  social 
distinction.  The  eugenist  asks  that  young  people 
from  childhood  shall  be  trained  to  regard  high  vi- 
tality and  dependable  health  as  first  essentials  in 
an  ideal  man  or  woman.  If  this  belief  becomes 
widely  accepted,  then  it  will  determine  even  per- 
sonal fancy  and  "falling  in  love."  The  aim  is  not 
to  eliminate  falling  in  love,  but  to  put  it  upon  a  new 
level  of  vitality,  heredity,  and  health.  Thus  would 
the  eugenist  contribute  to  the  advancement  of  the 
human  race. 

Preventive  eugenics  is  a  term  which  has  been 
used  to  specify  measures  to  protect  parenthood 
from  racial  poisons.  Alcohol  is  a  poison  which 
seems  to  affect  the  generative  organs  and  especially 
the  germ  cell  life.  By  preventing  alcoholism  through 
legislation  it  is  possible  to  safeguard  the  nation  from 
a  so-called  racial  poison.  Tuberculosis  is  consid- 
ered another  racial  poison.  The  tubercle  bacilli,  by 
weakening  the  human  organism  in  millions  of  cases, 
indirectly  are  weakening  and  destructive  in  their 
effects  upon  germ  plasm  strength.  Venereal  diseases, 
such  as  syphilis  and  gonorrhea,  directly  attack  the 
female  generative  organs  causing  sterility  as  well  as 
untold  suffering,  and  hence  may  be  considered 


GROUPS  AND  BIOLOGIC  FACTORS  61 

racially  disastrous. 

All  factors  which  cut  down  the  birth  rate  unduly, 
undermine  parenthood,  or  otherwise  prevent  the 
birth  and  development  of  physically  and  mentally 
perfect  individuals  are  called  dysgenic.  These 
dysgenic  elements  may  be  overcome  by  human  un- 
derstanding, prevision,  and  control.  Through  neg- 
ative eugenics,  positive  eugenics,  and  preventive  eu- 
genics, supported  by  an  adequate  public  health  con- 
trol, it  is  possible  for  human  groups  to  develop  their 
biological  or  life-giving  qualities,  to  their  sturdiest, 
most  energetic,  and  richest  possibilities. 

4.  Vitality  and  Public  Health  Control  The 
various  forms  of  animal  life  are  in  continual  com- 
bat. The  larger,  more  powerful,  and  higher  devel- 
oped live  upon  the  lower  forms.  All  feed  upon  plant 
life ;  even  man  secures  his  food  from  eating  animals 
and  plants.  Moreover  through  his  superior  mental 
control  man  cultivates  special  forms  of  plant  life, 
and  fattens  certain  forms  of  animal  life  for  his  own 
survival  purposes. 

The  combat  also  operates  parasitically,  that  is, 
countless  millions  of  simple  animal  or  plant  organ- 
isms invade  a  higher  organism  and  live  within  it, 
perhaps  destroying  it;  while  other  parasitic  forms 
of  life  are  engaged  in  decomposing  and  putrefactive 
activities.'  From  birth  every  individual  must  main- 
tain a  constant  fight  against  the  invasion  into  his 


62  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

organism  of  pathogenic  bacteria.  Human  beings 
not  only  prey  upon  one  another  by  open  warfare  or 
gun  play  but  also  by  subtle  means,  such  as  the 
maintenance  for  profit  of  unhealthful  and  disease- 
ridden  tenements.  They  are  also  preyed  upon  by 
disease-producing  bacteria  to  such  an  extent  that 
human  diseases  have  been  described  as  being  largely 
struggles  between  forms  of  life,  that  is,  between 
human  life  and  microscopic  life. 

Of  those  persons  who  are  ordinarily  considered 
well  born,  a  large  percentage  possess  some  defects  of 
bodily  structure  which  sooner  or  later  are  mani- 
fested in  low  vital  resistance,  weak  lungs,  weak  kid- 
neys, a  weak  digestive  apparatus,  a  weak  heart,  and 
the  like.  A  person  must  also  guard  himself  and  be 
guarded  from  subtle  poisons,  overfatigue,  and  phys- 
ical accident.  The  environment  is  lurking  with 
hidden  dangers  to  the  health  and  vitality  of  indi- 
viduals, and  hence  to  group  life.  In  this  era  there- 
fore of  the  ravages  of  bacterial  diseases,  of  contam- 
ination by  poisons,  of  destruction  by  accidents  and 
wars,  and  of  inherited  bodily  defects,  many  persons 
need  public  defense.  Certain  diseases,  such  as  tuber- 
culosis, malaria,  typhoid  fever,  yellow  fever  are  ac- 
quired by  the  individual  despite  his  vigilance.  Some 
diseases  can  be  handled  successfully  only  by  action 
on  the  part  of  the  entire  group,  that  is,  by  public 
action.  This  need  has  led  to  public  health  control. 

In  our  complex  civilization  we  cannot  be  sure 


GROUPS  AND  BIOLOGIC  FACTORS  63 

that  each  individual  will  be  careful  of  the  health  of 
other  persons.  People  live  so  close  together  and  in 
such  huddled  groups  in  the  large  cities  that  the 
sickness  of  one  person  may  be  easily  communicated 
to  others.  By  adulterating  foods  one  person  may  be 
criminally  careless  of  the  health  of  other  persons, 
but  since  the  consumers  may  be  strangers  to  him  or 
live  in  distant  cities,  he  feels  no  special  responsibil- 
ity for  their  health.  Hence  it  has  become  necessary 
for  the  city,  state,  and  nation  to  pass  laws  com- 
pelling people  to  live  up  to  certain  health  standards, 
not  so  much  for  their  own  welfare,  as  for  the  welfare 
of  other  persons. 

Public  health  control  is  based  upon  many  factors, 
but  the  chief  is  perhaps  a  knowledge  of  bacterial  life. 
Bacteria  may  be  divided  into  three  classes:  those 
which  are  helpful  to  human  life,  such  as  the  bacteria 
which  causes  dough  to  rise  or  cheese  to  ripen ;  those 
which  cause  decomposition;  and  those  which  are 
disease-producing. 

The  last-mentioned  or  pathogenic  bacteria  are 
usually  shaped  like  a  stick,  are  spherical,  or  are 
spiral.  The  first  group  are  the  most  numerous ;  they 
are  called  bacilli.  The  tubercle  bacilli  are  of  this 
kind.  The  second  group,  spherical  in  shape,  are 
called  cocci,  and  are  represented  by  the  bacteria 
which  produce  pneumonia.  The  third  group,  spiral 
in  form,  are  named  spirilla,  and  are  represented  by 
the  bacteria  which  cause  cholera. 


64  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

In  size  bacteria  are  very  small.  Those  which 
cause  anthrax  are  about  l-8000th  of  an  inch  in 
length;  while  those  which  produce  influenza  are 
aboutl-80,000th  of  an  inch  long.  A  single  drop  of 
water  may  contain  hundreds  of  thousands  and  even 
millions  of  bacteria.  It  has  been  estimated  that  in 
a  space  occupied  by  a  grain  of  sugar,  600,000,000 
bacteria  might  be  packed  and  each  be  comfortable. 

Bacteria  thrive  best  in  a  warm  temperature.  They 
increase  most  rapidly  at  about  the  temperature  of 
the  human  body ;  they  are  less  sensitive  to  cold  than 
to  heat.  Almost  all  the  harmful  types  of  bacteria 
are  killed  upon  being  exposed  to  a  temperature  of 
150  degrees  F.  for  thirty  minutes,  but  bacteria  such 
as  typhoid  and  diphtheria  bacilli  have  been  exposed 
for  days  to  the  temperature  of  liquid  air,  that  is, 
about  390  degrees  below  zero  F.,  without  having 
their  vitality  destroyed.  At  a  low  temperature  bac- 
teria reproduce  slowly,  if  at  all ;  but  at  a  tempera- 
ture from  70  degrees  to  100  degrees  F.,  they  repro- 
duce very  rapidly.  They  multiply  by  cell  division ; 
at  the  proper  temperature  certain  bacteria  cells  di- 
vide into  two  cells  every  hour.  At  this  rate  the  de- 
scendents  of  a  single  cell  at  the  end  of  a  single  day 
would  number  far  above  a  million ;  at  the  close  of 
two  days,  they  would  number  50,000,000,000,000.  It 
makes  a  difference  therefore  whether  milk  is  kept 
at  a  low  temperature  or  allowed  to  stand  in  a  warm 
place,  especially  if  it  contains  pathogenic  bacteria. 


GROUPS  AND  BIOLOGIC  FACTORS  65 

Plagues,  pestilences,  and  epidemics  are  the  most 
striking  phenomena  affecting  public  health.  In  1892, 
the  wealthy  city  of  Hamburg  was  terrorized  by  a 
severe  cholera  epidemic.  More  recently,  Ithaca, 
New  York,  and  other  cities  were  ravaged  by  typhoid 
fever.  Savages  attributed  plagues  and  epidemics  of 
disease  to  evil  spirits,  and  even  for  civilized  peoples, 
epidemics  have  often  been  mysterious  in  origin. 
They  are  now  known,  however,  to  be  outbreaks  of 
disease  caused  by  bacteria.  It  is  not  the  disease, 
but  the  parasitic  microbe  which  is  "catching."  Epi- 
demics may  occur  when  the  water  supply,  the  milk 
supply,  or  the  food  supply  becomes  contaminated 
by  the  presence  of  pathogenic  bacteria. 

Typhoid  fever  epidemics  are  caused  by  the  ty- 
phoid bacillus,  which  was  discovered  by  Koch  about 
1879.  The  bacilli  are  taken  into  the  human  organ- 
ism usually  through  drinking  water  which  has  been 
contaminated  by  sewage  containing  the  microbes, 
through  drinking  milk  contaminated  perhaps  by  the 
dirty  hands  of  unclean  milkers,  or  through  eating 
raw  oysters  which  have  been  growing  in  places 
where  city  sewage  has  been  emptied.  Diphtheria 
bacilli  find  lodgment  in  the  throats  of  susceptible 
persons,  where  they  multiply  and  secrete  meanwhile 
a  poisonous  substance,  or  toxin,  which  circulates 
through  the  body,  causing  death  unless  counter- 
acted. 

In  1880,  the  cause  of  malaria,  the  most  important 


66  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

of  diseases  affecting  tropical  peoples,  was  discov- 
ered. In  1899,  the  further  discovery  was  made  that 
malarial  microbes  are  transmitted  from  victim  to 
victim  through  the  bite  of  the  anopheles  mosquito, 
in  whose  bodies  the  bacteria  live  a  cycle  of  their 
lives.  By  public  action  the  anopheles  mosquito  may 
be  eliminated,  and  human  beings  freed  from  mala- 
ria. Yellow  fever,  greatly  dreaded  in  the  Tropics, 
is  now  attributed  to  a  microbe  that  is  conveyed  by 
the  stegomyia  mosquito.  Only  group  action  can 
stamp  out  yellow  fever. 

In  the  case  of  smallpox  and  similar  diseases  which 
are  spectacular  in  their  development  and  quickly 
fatal,  the  public  has  safeguarded  its  members 
through  quarantine  measures.  In  slowly  develop- 
ing diseases,  such  as  tuberculosis,  the  public  how- 
ever has  been  woefully  slow  in  protecting  individ- 
uals. 

The  cause  of  tuberculosis  has  been  known  since 
1882  when  the  tubercle  bacillus  was  discovered. 
This  bacillus  may  find  its  way  into  the  lungs  and 
there  multiply  until  its  host  succombs.  Tubercu- 
losis is  no  longer  considered  an  inherited  disease. 
Some  persons  through  inheritance  may  possess  a 
set  of  weaker  membranes  of  the  lungs  or  a  lower 
vital  resistance  than  do  other  persons,  and  hence 
more  easily  become  victims  of  tuberculosis  than 
others.  No  one  can  develop  tuberculosis  unless  the 
bacillus  gets  into  his  organism  from  the  outside.  By 


GROUPS  AND  BIOLOGIC  FACTORS  67 

destroying  the  bacillus  it  is  possible  to  banish  the 
dread  disease  itself.  Tuberculosis  is  now  known  to 
be  non-inheritable,  curable  if  taken  charge  of  in 
the  early  stages,  and  preventable. 

We  have  enough  knowledge  concerning  causes  to 
crush  out  tuberculosis  by  group  action,  and  we  al- 
so know  the  methods  necessary  to  make  this  knowl- 
edge effective.  We  have  had  this  knowledge  and 
have  known  these  methods  for  several  years.  In 
spite  of  these  truths,  tuberculosis  causes  as  many 
deaths  perhaps  as  any  other  disease,  in  fact,  it  prob- 
ably heads  the  list  of  diseases  in  civilized  countries. 
In  the  United  States  it  causes  perhaps  one-eighth  of 
all  deaths  of  adults.  A  tuberculosis  mortality  list 
of  150,000  individuals  a  year  in  the  United  States 
is  a  deplorable  sacrifice  to  an  entirely  preventable 
disease — preventable  by  group  action. 

On  the  average,  tuberculosis  leads  to  the  death  of 
individuals  at  about  thirty-five  years  of  age,  at  an 
age  which  is  at  the  center  of  productive  activity, 
economically,  of  almost  all  persons,  at  an  age  which 
cuts  off  on  the  average  twenty  years  of  productive 
usefulness.  The  economic  cost  of  the  sickness  pro- 
duced annually  by  tuberculosis  in  the  United  States 
has  been  estimated  at  $300,000,000.  Furthermore, 
perhaps  thirty  per  cent  of  all  the  dependency  in  the 
large  cities  of  the  United  States  is  due  to  tubercu- 
losis. 

The  largest  number  of  deaths  by  tuberculosis  oc- 


68  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

curs  among  tenement  dwellers  and  factory  em- 
ployees. The  map  of  a  city  which  shows  the  loca- 
tion of  the  tuberculosis  cases  is  similar  in  appear- 
ance to  a  map  of  that  city  showing  the  inadequate 
housing  conditions.  Houses  with  dark  rooms  and 
with  poorly  ventilated  bedrooms,  furnish  breeding 
places  for  tubercle  bacilli.  With-  the  increase  of 
poor  housing  conditions,  tubercle  bacilli  rapidly 
multiply. 

The  workers  in  factories  and  mills  who  are 
breathing  fine  particles  of  dust  are  likely  to  suffer 
laceration  of  the  lungs,  a  condition  which  makes  in- 
vasion by  tubercle  bacilli  an  easy  matter.  Since 
leaning  over  desks  all  day  cramps  the  lungs,  book- 
keepers and  persons  similarly  engaged  are  suscept- 
ible. An  indoor  life  and  closed  houses  have  kept 
people  away  from  bacteria-killing  sunshine  and  in 
with  disease-producing  microbes. 

Why  is  a  disease  which  is  known  to  be  prevent- 
able still  so  prevalent?  No  one  wishes  to  acquire 
the  disease,  and  yet  all  are  in  danger.  The  reason 
for  the  widespread  existence  of  tuberculosis  is  be- 
cause the  treatment  of  it  has  been  left  so  largely  to 
individuals.  Community  action  could  overcome 
the  disease  in  a  short  time.  If  the  United  States 
government  were  to  proceed  against  tuberculosis  in 
this  country  in  the  organized  way  that  it  moved 
against  typhoid  fever  in  the  Canal  Zone  some  years 
ago  under  the  direction  of  General  William  C.  Gor- 


GROUPS  AND  BIOLOGIC  FACTORS  69 

gas,  tuberculosis  would  soon  become  unknown. 

Public  health  control  requires  the  fulfillment  of 
human  needs  for  pure  air,  pure  milk,  pure  water, 
and  pure  food.  The  pure  air  question  is  an  urban 
problem.  Mountain  or  sea  air  is  purest,  but  the  air 
that  is  breathed  in  cities,  especially  in  libraries,  in 
closed  houses,  in  assembly  rooms  is  likely  to  be  per- 
meated by  pathogenic  bacteria.  Houses  that  are 
built  with  dark  rooms,  that  is,  rooms  that  have  no 
windows  opening  to  the  outside  air,  are  especially 
dangerous. 

From  the  city's  chimneys,  especially  of  factories 
and  the  smokestacks  of  engines,  there  emanates 
clouds  of  smoke,  shadowing  continuously  thousands 
and  millions  of  people.  To  those  persons  living  *n 
urban  communities  where  soft  coal  is  consumed  in 
vast  quantities,  life  comes  to  be  "an  existence  in  a 
gray,  blackened  world."  The  pall  of  smoke  covers 
walls  and  pavements,  enters  houses  and  places  of 
business ;  the  small  particles  of  soot  penetrate  the 
lungs  until  the  tissues  become  streaked  and  spotted. 
The  proper  ventilation  of  houses  becomes  impos- 
sible. Fresh  air  and  sunshine  are  shut  out;  disease- 
producing  germs  are  shut  in,  and  multiply  rapidly. 
Tubercle  bacilli  become  impregnably  established 
in  houses  where  doors  and  windows  are  kept 
closed  against  the  smoke  nuisance. 

Human  beings  have  been  called  sun  animals, 
while  pathogenic  bacteria  flourish  in  dirt,  dust,  and 


70  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

darkness.  Public  interest  and  control  can  guaran- 
tee to  every  pallid,  weary  industrial  worker  of  the 
city  the  boon  of  pure  air  and  of  the  disease-killing 
sunshine  of  heaven. 

There  is  a  close  relation  between  the  quality  and 
condition  of  milk  fed  to  children  and  the  death  and 
sickness  rates.  Milk  being  opaque  may  harbor 
quantities  of  unnoticed  filth  and  dirt.  Moreover, 
milk  gives  a  home  to  the  disease-producing  bacteria 
which  are  the  immediate  causes  of  the  serious  di- 
gestive troubles  of  children,  of  cholera  infantum,  al- 
so typhoid,  diphtheria,  and  similar  diseases  which 
attack  adults  as  well  as  children.  Group  control  may 
be  expressed  through  measures  insuring  cleanliness 
and  low  temperature  in  the  handling  of  the  milk 
supply.  Upon  pure  milk  the  lives  of  children  de- 
pend ;  the  need  for  a  pure  milk  supply  especially  for 
the  children  in  cities  is  a  call  to  a  new  crusade  in 
behalf  of  child  welfare. 

A  drinking  water  supply  comes  from  surface  wa- 
ter and  ground  water.  Almost  all  cities  rely  largely 
on  the  former,  which  as  it  flows  along  is  subject  to 
contamination.  Numerous  epidemics  are  likely  to 
result ;  the  typhoid  fever  rate  in  a  given  city  is  close- 
ly related  to  the  quality  of  public  health  control,  es- 
pecially with  reference  to  the  water  supply. 

Public  health  control  includes  safeguarding  the 
food  supply.  The  incoming  of  the  city's  food  has 
been  described  bv  Hollis  Godfrey  as  a  wonderful 


GROUPS  AND  BIOLOGIC  FACTORS  71 

pageant.  Wheat  trains  rushing  from  the  wide  hori- 
zon of  the  West ;  fishing  schooners  tacking  up  from 
off  the  banks ;  refrigerator  cars  hastening  across  the 
continent,  laden  with  the  best  from  a  thousand 
herds;  hightopped  trucks  driven  by  motor  power, 
looming  in  over  the  country  roads  in  the  freshness 
of  the  earliest  dawn ;  crates  filled  with  golden  oran- 
ges, with  luscious  peaches,  with  heavy-hanging 
grapes,  hastening  cityward:  all  this  inrushing,  con- 
verging evidence  of  nature's  bounty  offers  a  wide 
breadth  of  thought,  a  feeling  of  greatness,  a  sense 
of  pride  in  this  rich  country  in  which  we  live. 

This  gorgeous  picture  however  does  not  disclose 
the  fact  that  foods  are  exposed  to  destructive  agen- 
cies from  the  time  that  they  leave  their  place  of  or- 
igin to  the  time  that  they  reach  the  table.  The  foes 
are  of  twro  kinds :  natural  and  unnatural,  the  forces 
of  nature  and  the  desires  of  greedy  or  ignorant  men. 
The  natural  enemies  of  food  preservation  are  the 
bacteria  which  cause  decomposition;  and  the  un- 
natural ones  are  men  who  deliberately  sell  decom- 
posed food,  who  use  harmful  preservatives,  and  who 
resort  to  injurious  adulteration.  City  venders  of 
fruit  and  other  forms  of  food  often  use  filthy  rooms 
alive  with  tubercle  bacilli,  as  storerooms;  they  are 
themselves  sometimes  infected  with  disease  germs. 

One  of  the  problems  in  securing  adequate  public 
health  control  is  illustrated  by  the  difficulties  in- 
volved in  the  passage  of  the  Pure  Food  and  Drugs 


72  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

Act  in  1906  by  the  Congress  of  the  United  States. 
At  every  session  of  Congress  for  ten  years  preced- 
ing 1906  the  opposition  from  the  large  manufactur- 
ing interests  to  the  pure  food  act  was  powerful 
enough  to  defeat  its  passage.  In  fact  in  order  to 
secure  its  passage  at  all  its  friends  had  to  make 
serious  compromises  with  the  opposing  interests. 
Moreover,  unscrupulous  manufacturers  have  been 
able  to  deceive  the  public,  and  escape  punishment. 

The  federal  law  in  this  country  applies  only  to 
food  supplies  that  are  made  in  one  state  and  shipped 
into  other  states.  The  traffic  in  food  supplies  of 
any  state  in  the  United  States  must  be  regulated  by 
each  state  government.  Multiply  the  difficulties  of 
the  nation  by  forty-eight,  and  some  idea  will  be 
gained  of  the  problems  of  securing  pure  food.  More- 
over, every  city  has  its  local  problems  of  safeguard- 
ing food.  The  public  control  of  this  situation  rests 
ultimately  upon  group  opinion.  The  guardians  of 
pure  food,  it  may  be  summarized,  are  guardians  of 
human  life. 

The  quality  of  life  forces  vary  in  different  human 
beings.  Professors  George  Hansen  and  F.  H.  Gid- 
dings  have  divided  people  into  three  vitality  classes. 
(1)  Low  vitality  persons  include  those  persons,  as  a 
rule,  whose  birth  rate  and  death  rate  are  high,  whose 
physical  and  mental  defectiveness  is  relatively  high, 
whose  vital  resistance  is  low,  and  whose  knowledge 
of  personal  and  public  hygiene  measures  is  scanty. 


GROUPS  AND  BIOLOGIC  FACTORS  73 

They  include  the  poorer  wage-earners  in  the  over- 
crowded districts  of  large  cities. 

(2)  Medium  vitality  people  are  those  whose  birth 
rate  and  death  rate  are  both  low,  whose  intelligence 
is  high,  whose  vital  resistance  has  been  worn  down 
by  the  countless  demands  of  modern  city  life,  and 
whose  lives  are  often  thus  prematurely  cut  short. 
The  professional  classes  represent  this  type. 

(3)  High  vitality  people  are  those  who  have  been 
well  born,  without  mental  and  physical  defects; 
who  have  a  fairly  high  birth  rate  and  a  low  death 
rate ;  and  who  live  where  the  environment  is  favor- 
able.   The  rural  land-owning  classes  illustrate  this 
group. 

Eugenic  and  public  health  control  have  their 
best  friend  in  education.  Through  education  peo- 
ple may  learn  what  they  can  do  in  order  to  develop 
themselves  toward  high  vitality,  and  at  the  same 
time  guarantee  a  splendid  physical  start  in  life  to 
the  next  generation.  The  improvement  of  environ- 
mental conditions  through  public  health  control  is 
necessary  in  order  that  an  eugenic  racial  stock  may 
be  built  up,  safeguarded,  stimulated,  and  enabled  to 
function  fully.  Through  eugenic  and  public  health 
procedure  individuals  and  groups  alike  may  grow 
in  stature,  and  in  physical  and  mental  quality. 


74  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

PROBLEMS 

1.  In  what  way  is  heredity  more  important  than  environ- 

ment ? 

2.  How  is  environment  more  important  than  heredity? 

3.  Classify  as  to  cause,  whether  primarily  hereditary  or 

environmental:  (a)  race  prejudice,  (b)  Italian  in- 
terest in  art,  (c)  a  child's  fear  of  the  dark,  (d)  Jap- 
anese politeness,  (e)  a  rosy  complexion. 

4.  What  important  contribution  to  socio-biologic  knowledge 

was  made  by:  (a)  Mendel,  (b)  de  Vries,  (c)  Weis- 
mann,  (d)  Galton. 

5.  What  is  eugenics? 

6.  In  what  ways  is  society  wasteful  of  its  born  geniuses? 

7.  Who  suffers  the  more  from  adulterated  foods,  the  well 

nourished  or  the  undernourished? 

8.  Explain:  "Man  is  the  sickest  animal  alive." 

9.  Explain  the  statement  that  although  the  death  rate  has 

declined  in  recent  years,  the  race  is  less  vigorous  than 
formerly. 

10.  What  are  the  arguments  for  a  national  department  of 

health? 

11.  What  are  the  objections  to  such  a  department? 

12.  "WThy  does  the  United  States  appropriate  so  much  more 

money  for  the  health  of  animals  than  for  the  health 
of  human  beings?" 

13.  Is  it  the  work  of  a  physician  to  cure  or  to  keep  people 

well? 

14.  Explain  the  statement  that  man  is  an  outdoor  animal. 

15.  Why  is  the  prevention  of  tuberculosis  distinctly  a  social 

problem? 

16.  What  is  meant  by  the  term,  vital  statistics? 

17.  What  obligations  does  your  health  place  upon  you  with 

reference  to  the  health  of  others? 


CHAPTER  IV. 
GROUPS  AND  PSYCHOLOGIC  FACTORS 


THE  HIGHEST  PHASE  of  biological  inheritance  is 
the  psychical  nature,  especially  in  its  social  phases. 
The  original  nature  of  man  is  comprised  of  complex 
elements,  such  as  instinctive-emotional  tendencies. 
Other  psychical  factors,  with  sociological  implica- 
tions, include  habitual  and  conscious  reactions,  im- 
itation and  invention,  communication  and  gre- 
gariousness. 

1 .  Instinctive-emotional  Tendencies.  Every  per- 
son begins  life  with  instinctive  impulses,  that  is, 
with  inborn  psychic  tendencies  biologically  trans- 
mitted. A  specific  sense  impression  releases  a1  defi- 
nite mode  of  behavior,  which  is  the  same  in  all 
members  of  the  species. 

Instinctive  tendencies  represent  ways  of  acting 
which  have  been  the  most  successful  in  the  past. 
They  result  in  modes  of  behavior  that  promote 
either  the  welfare  of  the  individual,  such  as  the 
self-preservation  impulses;  the  continuance  of  the 
group,  such  as  the  sex  impulses ;  or  the  welfare  of 
the  group,  such  as  the  gregarious  impulses.  The 


76  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

instinctive  tendencies  include  the  self-preservation, 
the  self-assertive,  and  creative  responses,  as  well  as 
the  inquisitive,  acquisitive,  and  combative  responses 
and  the  sex  and  parental,  gregarious,  and  play 
responses. 

The  instinctive-emotional  factors,  as  well  as  ha- 
bitual and  acquired  reactions,  may  be  better  under- 
stood if  viewed  in  terms  of  "drives"  and  "mechan- 
isms," which  have  been  analyzed  by  R.  S.  Wood- 
worth.  Mechanisms  are  innate  or  acquired  neural- 
motor  ways  of  responding  to  stimuli.  Drives  are 
factors  which  release  a  mechanism ;  they  range  from 
external  stimuli  to  inner  motives. 

All  that  the  individual  does  or  thinks  is  built  up- 
on instinctive  mechanisms.  There  is  a  [sense  in 
which  social  institutions  are  super-structures,  built 
upon  instinctive  traits;  the  family,  for  example, 
rests  upon  sex,  parental,  and  gregarious  impulses. 
Inquisitiveness  leads  to  invention  and  discovery ;  it 
is  the  driving  force  of  learning ;  it  is  a  strong  psy- 
chological element  in  all  pure  forms  of  research  and 
advanced  intellectual  activity.  Acquisitiveness  ex- 
plains psychologically  many  of  the  wealth-getting 
activities  of  man  as  well  as  the  growth  of  the  in- 
stitution of  private  property.  The  play  drives  and 
mechanisms  are  basic  factors  in  the  recent  develop- 
ment of  social  institutions  for  meeting  the  recrea- 
tional needs  of  man.  Gregariousness  leads  to  neigh- 
borhood, community,  and  national  group  life.  All 


GROUPS  AND  PSYCHOLOGIC  FACTORS       77 

the  human  groups  which  will  be  studied  in  Part  II 
of  this  book  are  indebted  to  the  instinctive  tenden- 
cies in  human  nature.  The  family,  play,  occupa- 
tional, school,  church,  and  community  groupings 
are  a  result  in  part  of  instinctive-emotional  drives 
and  mechanisms. 

Closely  connected  with  the  instincts  are  the  feel- 
ings. They  represent  the  tone  of  the  organism, 
and  evaluate  activities  on  the  basis  of  past  racial 
and  individual  experience.  The  mention  of  a  given 
activity  to  an  individual  produces  a  pleasant  feel- 
ing or  an  unpleasant  tone  of  consciousness,  accord- 
ing to  the  nature  of  the  individual's  experience  in 
that  particular. 

Instinctive  reactions  are  accompanied  not  only 
by  feeling  tones,  but  also  by  emotional  discharges. 
An  emotion  appears  to  be  a  complex  of  feeling  and 
sensation  which  accompanies  instinctive  and  other 
activities.  Certain  emotions  function  in  energizing 
the  individual,  such  as  the  emotion  of  anger;  some 
cause  his  personality  to  expand,  such  as  the  emotion 
of  joy;  others  tend  to  secure  protection,  such  as 
the  emotion  of  fear;  and  others  lead  individuals 
out  into  activities  of  the  highest  personal  and  group 
usefulness,  such  as  the  emotion  of  love. 

Sympathetic  emotion  is  a  powerful  socializing 
force.  When  one  has  sympathy  for  another  person, 
he  can  put  himself  in  the  other's  place  and  obtain 
the  other's  point  of  view — an  exercise  which  is  es- 


78  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

sential  to  the  development  of  a  socialized  person, 
and  in  solving  many  group  problems,  such  as  the 
controversies  between  labor  and  capital. 

A  large  emotional  element  is  usually  expressed 
through  suggestibility,  a  general  innate  tendency 
which  causes  people  to  respond  to  other  people's 
feelings,  ideas,  and  actions.  Children  are  highly  sug- 
gestible; they  lack  knowledge  and  organization  of 
the  knowledge  which  they  possess.  As  a  result  of 
their  suggestibility  children  are  subject  to  the  di- 
rection of  their  elders ;  they  acquire  rapidly  the  tra- 
ditional attitudes  of  their  elders  and  their  groups. 

2.  Habitual  and  Conscious  Reactions.  On  the 
basis  of  instinctive-feeling  tendencies  the  individu- 
al begins  life,  but  the  group  environment  however 
presents  so  many  new  problems  that  the  individual 
is  unable  to  cope  with  them  instinctively.  More 
or  less  conscious  attention  is  directed  to  making 
necessary  adjustments.  Attention  leads  to  new  types 
of  behavior.  These  new  expressions  if  repeated 
several  times  become  habitual  reactions.  They  be- 
come habits.  They  are  modifications  of  instinctive 
reactions  or  of  previously  formed  habits.  When  a 
problem  is  solved,  a  new  way  of  acting  has  been 
discovered  and  perhaps  reduced  to  an  habitual  re- 
action, and  attention  is  free  to  take  up  the  solution 
of  other  problems. 

The  only  reliable  person  is  he  who  has  established 


GROUPS  AND  PSYCHOLOGIC  FACTORS        79 

a  number  of  well  organized  habits.  The  only  per- 
son who  is  honest  is  he  who  is  honest  by  habit. 
When  a  person  raises  the  question  whether  or  not 
he  will  be  honest,  he  cannot  be  trusted ;  the  person 
who  is  trustworthy  is  he  who  is  habitually  honest. 
Another  illustration  of  the  point  that  group  struct- 
ures are  based  upon  the  foundation  of  well  formed 
habits  in  individuals  is  found  in  the  fact  that  mod- 
ern credit  associations  depend  upon  honesty  which 
is  habitual.  As  soon  as  mutual  confidence  breaks, 
a  financial  crisis  is  likely  to  ensue.  Conscious  re- 
actions occur  thus  when  instinctive  or  habitual  ten- 
dencies fail  to  meet  a  new  problem.  An  obstacle 
creates  a  crisis ;  attention  is  centered  upon  the  ob- 
stacle; and  a  new  habit-organization  results. 

The  cognitive  phase  of  conscious  reactions  evalu- 
ates activities  with  reference  to  the  present  and  fu- 
ture; the  instinctive-feeling  impulses  have  already 
performed  this  service  with  reference  to  past  exper- 
ience. Reason  is  the  highest  phase  of  cognition ;  it 
can  evaluate  life  factors  that  are  present  in  neither 
time  nor  space;  it  can  often  transform  environ- 
mental conditions ;  and  can  lead  to  new  and  richer 
levels  of  group  life. 

All  the  scientific  inventions  of  the  past,  all  the 
development  of  the  arts,  all  the  human  control  over 
nature  are  largely  the  product  of  reason.  It  is  to 
be  hoped  that  man  will  in  time,  through  reasoning, 
be  able  to  master  his  social  and  spiritual  environ- 


80  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

ment  as  he  has  overcome  to  a  degree  his  physical 
environment. 

The  volitional  phase  of  conscious  reactions  is  the 
choosing  element.  Each  organism  may  be  consid- 
ered as  a  more  or  less  independent  center  of  activity. 
It  is  not  entirely  subject  to  its  heredity  or  its  envi- 
ronment; it  has  the  power  in  itself  of  making 
choices  and  carrying  them  into  action.  If  each  or- 
ganism had  to  respond  to  all  stimuli  which  it  re- 
ceives, it  would  soon  be  shattered  neurologically. 

As  a  result  of  the  choosing  phase  of  conscious 
reactions,  a  person  is  not  wholly  a  machine.  He  has 
a  margin  of  freedom — a  margin  which  varies  with 
different  persons  and  environments.  This  margin 
dwindles  when  a  person's  health  breaks,  when  pov- 
erty increases,  or  when  an  atmosphere  of  vicious 
and  criminal  attitudes  develops.  It  is  far  more  dif- 
ficult for  a  person  who  has  been  reared  in  an  envi- 
ronment of  extreme  want,  vice,  and  crime  to  live  a 
social,  constructive  life  than  it  is  for  one  who  is 
trained  in  an  environment  of  love,  good  will,  and 
group  interest. 

3.  Imitation  and  Invention.  Another  tendency, 
somewhat  instinctive  in  character  is  imitation,  a 
process  that  is  based  on  the  fact  that  like  stimuli 
produce  like  responses,  and  that  individuals  are 
equipped  with  similar  drives  and  mechanisms.  Im- 
itations may  be  defined  as  the  unconscious  or  con- 


GROUPS  AND  PSYCHOLOGIC  FACTORS        81 

scious  copying  primarily  of  the  actions  of  other  in- 
dividuals ;  the  process  may  also  extend  to  the  copy- 
ing of  the  ideas  of  others. 

The  child  obtains  the  mass  of  his  attitudes,  ideals, 
and  purposes  by  imitating  unconsciously  and  con- 
sciously the  copies  that  are  set  before  him  in  his 
family,  play,  neighborhood,  school,  religious  and 
other  groups.  So  rapidly  do  the  imitative  processes 
operate,  that  by  the  time  the  seventh  or  eighth 
year  is  reached,  the  foundation  lines  of  the  child's 
moral  and  social  character  are  laid.  An  individual  is 
very  imitative  in  the  early  years  of  life  when  his 
stock  of  ideas  is  small  and  his  means  of  criticism 
are  scanty. 

It  is  by  imitation  that  each  generation  takes  up 
and  makes  its  own  the  traditions  and  customs  of 
the  preceding  generation.  The  imitative  processes 
preserve  the  continuity  of  ideas  and  of  the  social 
environment.  They  are  vital  conserving  factors  in 
group  life. 

In  the  human  species  there  is  a  far  greater  per- 
centage of  custom  imitation  than  among  animals. 
The  offspring  of  animals  are  well  equipped  at  birth 
with  instinctive  ways  of  acting;  they  are  thrown 
upon  their  own  resources  relatively  early  in  life. 
Hence  there  is  little  chance  for  imitation  of  parents. 

Unfortunately,  there  is  a  strong  tendency  for 
ways  of  doing  and  believing  to  operate  in  the  form 
of  custom  long  after  their  original  meaning  has  been 


82  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

forgotten,  and  long  after  their  usefulness  has  ended. 
Note  the  American  veneration  oftentimes  for  a  com- 
mon law  which  is  at  variance  with  current  indus- 
trial needs.  A  deference  is  shown  on  occasion  for 
certain  traditional  aspects  of  the  law  which  exhibit 
too  great  concern  for  the  powerful  individual  and 
too  little  respect  for  the  needs  of  the  weaker  group 
members. 

Custom  imitation,  as  pointed  out  by  Gabriel 
Tarde  and  E.  A.  Ross,  is  favored  by  psychical  and 
social  isolation.  Geographic  and  social  barriers  shut 
out  new  stimuli ;  they  prohibit  contacts  with  the  ad- 
vanced ideas  and  methods  of  the  day.  In  the  iso- 
lated sections  even  of  civilized  countries,  there  sur- 
vive clannishness,  patriarchal  authority,  narrow 
religious  dogmatism,  and  illiteracy. 

A  Chinese  saying  reads:  I  approach  my  elder 
brother  with  respect,  my  father  and  mother  with 
veneration,  my  grandfather  with  awe.  To  ancestor 
worship  with  its  emphasis  upon  the  past,  the  phe- 
nomenal stability  of  China  is  partly  to  be  credited. 
All  human  groups,  in  fact,  rely  upon  custom  imi- 
tation for  stability.  If  it  were  not  for  custom  imita- 
tion, no  human  group  would  possess  permanence. 
Where  custom  imitation  prevails,  there  is  danger 
from  too  much  conservatism.  Custom  imitation 
tends  to  preserve  beliefs  too  long ;  it  stifles  thought. 
As  a  result  of  custom  imitation,  many  persons  ac- 
cept beliefs  uncritically. 


GROUPS  AND  PSYCHOLOGIC  FACTORS        83 

Then  there  is  fashion  imitation.  As  the  former 
is  a  borrowing  from  ancestors  and  predecessors,  the 
latter  is  a  copying  of  contemporaries.  The  reading 
of  newspapers  and  magazines  favors  fashion  imita- 
tion, and  on  the  whole  creates  contacts  with  the 
present  rather  than  with  the  past.  In  penetrating 
remote  districts  the  railroads  assist  in  extending 
new  ideas  and  methods.  Travel  and  migration  re- 
sult in  attitudes  of  mind  that  favor  the  new  as  op- 
posed to  the  old.  Freedom  of  discussion  breaks  the 
spell  of  custom  imitation,  and  forward-looking 
schools  and  educational  systems  deliver  the  young 
from  prejudices  and  customs  that  are  no  longer  use- 
ful. Reactionary  school  systems  of  course  favor 
traditionalism  and  the  past. 

In  the  United  States  many  forces  have  operated 
in  favor  of  fashion.  American  individualism  has 
stimulated  the  immigrant  to  break  away  from  Old 
World  traditions,  and  to  violate  the  wishes  of 
priests,  padrones,  and  other  natural  upholders  of 
the  past.  The  spirit  of  progress  in  the  United  States 
has  left  little  room  for  reverence  for  antiquity.  The 
World  War  however  left  a  strong  reactionary  cur- 
rent in  its  wake,  which  indicates  that  the  United 
States  is  showing  signs  of  age,  even  in  its  youth. 

The  main  law  of  fashion  imitation  is  that  the 
persons  or  ideas  which  are  rated  as  superior  are  im- 
itated by  persons  who  are  rated  inferior.  The  cor- 
ollaries naturally  follow,  namely,  that  the  wealthy 


84  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

are  imitated  by  the  poor,  seniors  by  freshmen, 
statesmen  and  politicians  by  citizens. 

People  have  been  classified  according  to  their  at- 
titudes toward  fashion.  (1)  There  are  the  design- 
ers and  fashion-show  merchants.  (2)  There  are  the 
pace-setters,  that  is,  the  persons  who  adopt  a  new 
fashion  as  soon  as  it  is  put  on  the  market.  As  soon 
as  any  fashion  is  somewhat  widely  adopted,  the 
pace-setter  adopts  a  new  fashion  and  thus  the  pro- 
cess continues.  (3 )  There  are  the  people  who  adopt 
a  fashion  promptly  so  as  to  be  taken  for  the  pace- 
setters. (4)  Another  group  are  those  who  imitate 
a  new  fashion  somewhat  belatedly  and  in  modified 
forms  in  order  to  avoid  being  conspicuous.  (5) 
There  are  those  who  never  conform. 

Rational  imitation  refers  to  the  copying  of  ac- 
tions and  particularly  of  ideas  which  are  useful.  As 
a  high  percentage  of  customs  still  serve  useful  pur- 
poses, a  large  portion  of  custom  imitation  is  ration- 
al. Since  only  a  small  proportion  of  fashions  are 
useful,  a  great  deal  of  fashion  imitation  is  irrational. 

Custom  imitation,  fashion  imitation,  and  merit 
imitation  each  prevails  in  respective  sections  of  the 
lives  of  individuals  and  groups.  Custom  imitation 
obtains  in  matters  of  feeling,  ritual,  language; 
fashion  imitation  rules  in  questions  of  dress  and 
amusements ;  and  merit  or  rational  imitation  con- 
trols in  business  and  science. 

Out  of  the  original  nature  of  man  there  arises  in- 


GROUPS  AND  PSYCHOLOGIC  FACTORS        85 

ventive  ability.  While  representing  a  combination 
of  specific  inherited  qualities,  each  individual  also 
possesses  new  traits.  His  original  nature  is  not 
entirely  a  repetition  of  past  tendencies ;  he  is  char- 
acterized by  special  talents,  or  at  least  by  an  ability 
to  see  new  relationships.  This  inventiveness  has  its 
sources  in  human  energy,  physical  and  mental.  The 
concentration  of  energy,  particularly  of  mental  en- 
ergy, for  any  length  of  time  in  a  given  direction, 
gives  an  individual  a  superior  advantage  over  his 
fellows,  enables  him  to  see  farther  in  specific  di- 
rections, and  to  discover  unsuspected  relationships, 
which  is  the  essence  of  invention. 

It  probably  is  as  natural  to  invent  as  to  imitate, 
although  the  latter  process  is  far  easier.  Inventing 
is  defying  the  ordinary  currents  of  life  while  imi- 
tating is  drifting,  or  acting  like  other  persons  be- 
cause of  having  been  built  that  way.  Invention  is 
largely  a  process  of  trial  and  error  in  seeking  new 
mental  goals ;  imitation  is  following  established  re- 
sponses. 

Every  person  has  inventive  ability  enough  to  be 
able  to  contribute  to  group  progress.  This  ability 
is  rarely  developed;  it  is  rarely  stimulated  to  any 
degree.  The  schools  stress  copying,  the  following 
of  standards,  and  accepting  established  thought.  It 
is  often  only  by  accident  that  inventive  ability  is 
discovered,  stimulated,  and  set  at  work. 

The  need  for  applying  inventiveness  in  the  spirit- 


86  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

ual  realms  is  greater  than  in  the  field  of  mechanical 
appliances.  Human  mastery  of  the  physical  has 
exceeded  the  control  of  the  spiritual.  Special  talent 
and  genius  have  been  applied  in  the  field  of  mechan- 
ical inventions  until  the  material  world  has  come  to 
control  man's  attention.  These  inventions  have 
made  life  so  comfortable  and  have  produced  so 
many  luxuries  that  people  have  sometimes  been 
lulled  into  inertia  and  decay. 

Special  talent  and  genius  represent  a  natural 
concentration  of  inventive  ability.  In  the  original 
nature  of  man  there  is  often  found  highly  focalized 
expressions  of  artistic,  mathematical,  or  other  forms 
of  ability.  The  appearance  of  talent  and  genius  in 
any  given  individual  is  difficult  to  explain.  The 
biological  mutant  or  sport  appears  unexpectedly. 
The  human  genius  likewise  cannot  be  forecasted; 
he  is  as  likely  to  be  born  in  the  tenements  as  in  the 
mansion.  Society  however  is  wasteful  of  the  geniuses 
born  of  poor  parents ;  it  needs  to  assist  the  less  for- 
tunate members  of  society  in  obtaining  training 
facilities,  so  that  society  may  have  full  benefit  of 
the  potential  ability  of  its  members. 

4.  Communication  and  Gregariousness.  Human 
beings  respond  similarly  to  like  stimuli ;  their  psy- 
chical organisms  are  alike  in  inner  drives  and  mech- 
anisms. The  fact  that  individuals  react  to  stimuli 
in  similar  ways  explains  their  common  types  of  be- 


GROUPS  AND  PSYCHOLOGIC  FACTORS        87 

havior,  and  enables  them  to  survive  in  the  struggle 
for  existence.  This  common  nature  is  the  basis  of 
communication  and  gregariousness,  as  well  as  the 
basis  of  imitative  reactions. 

The  sentinel  members  of  a  flock  of  wild  geese  give 
a  warning  cry  which  secures  an  automatic  response 
on  the  part  of  all  members  of  the  group,  a  response 
which  produces  prompt  flight.  If  this  cry  did  not 
cause  a  quick,  automatic  reaction,  the  group  would 
not  long  survive.  In  the  higher  animal  world  a  set. 
of  cries,  calls,  and  other  symbols  together  with  ap- 
propriate mechanistic  responses  guarantee  group 
life.  With  human  beings  these  symbols  and  gestures 
result  in  a  consciousness  of  meaning,  language,  and 
the  establishment  of  social  relationships. 

One  primitive  man  struggling  alone  with  an  ugly 
lion  is  lost,  but  ten  men  by  co-operating  can  trap 
and  destroy  the  beast.  A  common  means  of  com- 
munication enables  the  men  to  work  together  ad- 
vantageously and  accomplish  their  purpose. 

Means  of  communication  are  first  set  up  between 
parent  and  offspring.  The  human  mother  can  rec- 
ognize a  half  dozen  different  cries  on  the  part  of  her 
infant.  From  these  simple  sounds,  language  de- 
velops. At  maturity,  the  individual  may  have  ac- 
quired a  vocabulary  ranging  from  two  thousand  to 
ten  thousand  words,  besides  a  large  number  of  dif- 
ferent inflections  of  the  voice  and  numerous  silent 
symbol  forms,  such  as  facial  gestures,  and  gestures 


88  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

of  the  hands,  arms,  shoulders  and  even  of  the  body. 
A  symbol  and  an  elementary  consciousness  of 
meaning  constitute  human  language.  By  means  of 
a  well  organized  method  of  communication,  human 
groups  may  stimulate  their  members  into  well- 
rounded,  useful  personalities ;  they  may  also  develop 
complex  organizations  among  themselves. 

In  its  simplest  form  communication  is  character- 
ized by  reflex,  feeling,  and  instinctive  elements,  op- 
erating an  elaborate  set  of  drives  and  mechanisms. 
The  angry  tone  of  voice  produces  a  response  of  an- 
gry feeling.  Only  in  the  higher  fields  of  personal 
control  are  individuals  able  to  overcome  these  ele- 
mental factors  of  communication,  and  thus  prevent 
themselves  from  shrinking  to  animal  levels  of  com- 
municative behavior. 

Higher  animals  have  fostered  elemental  ways  of 
communication ;  mankind  has  gone  farther,  produc- 
ing alphabets  and  literatures.  Language  is  not  dis- 
tinctly a  product  of  the  human  mind,  but  its  de- 
velopment has  been  pushed  to  high  levels  among 
human  beings  as  a  result  of  their  elaborate  group 
activities  and  needs. 

Language  is  a  conversation  of  attitudes  and  ap- 
propriate responses.  It  is  a  conversation  of  gestures 
of  the  hands,  shoulders,  face,  and  vocal  apparatus. 
Gestures  are  either  pantomimic,  facial,  or  vocal : 
pantomimic  are  gestures  chiefly  of  the  hands  and 
shoulders ;  facial  refer  to  the  expressions  about  the 


GROUPS  AND  PSYCHOLOGIC  FACTORS        89 

eyes  and  mouth ;  and  vocal  gestures  include  spoken 
language.  Each  gesture  stands  for  a  whole  act; 
each  is  the -beginning  of  an  act.  As  soon  as  its 
meaning  is  clear  and  an  appropriate  response  in  the 
form  of  another  gesture  is  made,  it  is  changed.  Thus 
communication  takes  place :  silently,  if  pantomimic 
and  facial ;  audibly,  if  vocal. 

The  development  of  communication  by  spoken 
language  is  a  fascinating  field  of  study.  Methods 
of  communication  by  writing  have  also  undergone 
marvelous  changes.  These  were  first  (1)  mnemonic, 
or  memory-aiding;  some  tangible  object  is  used  as 
a  message,  or  for  record,  between  people  who  are 
separated.  (2)  The  pictorial  stage  was  that  in 
which  a  picture  of  the  object  under  consideration 
is  given;  at  a  glance  its  story  is  revealed.  (3)  The 
ideographic  stage,  as  the  name  implies,  was  that 
in  which  the  pictures  become  representative;  they 
are  not  pictures,  but  symbols.  (4)  The  phonetic 
stage  is  that  in  which  a  sound-sign  is  given  for 
a  whole  word,  for  each  syllable,  or  for  each  letter— 
this  last  development  may  be  called  a  fifth  (5)  or 
the  alphabetic  stage  of  communication. 

The  alphabet  is  built  on  the  principle  that  the 
sign  as  an  eye  picture  suggests  the  sound,  inde- 
pendent of  the  meaning  of  the  sound.  It  was  very 
long  after  man  appeared  on  earth  that  it  dawned 
upon  him  that  all  the  words  people  utter  are  ex- 
pressed by  a  few  sounds.  It  was  in  this  discovery 


90  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

that  an  elaborate  though  simple  system  of  com- 
munication became  possible.  When  constant  signs 
were  chosen  to  represent  constant  sounds  the  prog- 
ress of  mankind  was  assured.  This  step  constituted 
the  invention  of  the  alphabet,  one  of  the  momentous 
triumphs  of  the  human  mind.  Only  thereby  was 
the  preservation  of  all  that  is  worth  while  in  group 
and  personal  experience  made  possible;  only  so 
could  educational  systems  develop. 

Over  two  hundred  alphabets  have  been  invented, 
but  less  than  fifty  have  survived.  India  was  the 
center  of  alphabet  manufacture.  The  chief  alpha- 
bets today  are  the  Chinese,  Arabic,  and  Roman. 
The  latter  is  the  vehicle  of  the  culture  of  Western 
civilization,  and  is  extending  its  influence. 

As  a  means  of  making  communication  accurate, 
numeral  systems  were  invented.  A  debt  of  inex- 
pressible magnitude  is  due  those  unknown  and  un- 
honored  individuals  who  first  made  the  cipher  and 
the  nine  numerals  of  the  Arabic  system.  The  great- 
est admiration  is  due  him  who  invented  the  cipher, 
for  without  it  modern  business  transactions,  trans- 
portation, and  many  other  forms  of  communication 
would  be  impossible. 

Communication  thus  originates  in  inarticulate 
cries,  and  elemental  symbols  and  meanings,  in 
drives  and  mechanisms ;  it  develops  as  a  result  of 
group  life  and  needs  into  complicated  literatures. 

Gregariousness  is  closely  related  to  communica- 


GROUPS  AND  PSYCHOLOGIC  FACTORS        91 

tion ;  gregarious  responses  are  made  because  of  sim- 
ilar neurological  structure  and  functional  nature, 
particularly  on  the  feeling  side.  Organisms  being 
functionally  alike  respond  mechanistically  alike  to 
the  same  stimulus.  In  its  simplicity  gregariousness 
implies  none  of  the  higher  attributes  of  mind. 
Among  animals  it  manifests  itself  in  a  strong  un- 
easiness in  isolation  and  a  sense  of  satisfaction  in 
being  one  of  a  group.  The  classic  illustration  of 
gregariousness  is  that  of  the  ox  which  shows  no 
affection  for  his  fellows  so  long  as  he  is  among  them, 
but  when  the  herd  becomes  separated  from  him  he 
displays  extreme  distress  until  he  is  able  to  rejoin 
the  group. 

Gregariousness  is  usually  confirmed  by  habit.- 
Offspring  are  born  into  a  group  and  grow  up  in  a 
group.  To  live  with  others  accentuates  the  strength 
of  the  gregarious  tendency  and  expands  its  man- 
ifestation. Solitary  punishment  is  regarded  by 
many  persons  as  a  mode  of  torture  too  cruel  and 
unnatural  to  be  longer  practiced.  For  the  normal 
person  to  be  forced  to  be  alone  for  any  length  of 
time  is  great  torture.  It  is  true  that  for  everyone 
except  a  few  more  or  less  highly  cultivated  persons, 
the  primary  condition  for  recreation  is  to  be  a  mem- 
ber of  a  crowd.  For  every  person  who  goes  to  the 
mountains  for  a  vacation  there  are  hundreds  who 
frequent  the  beaches  where  the  crowds  are  to  be 
found.  The  normal  daily  recreation  of  the  popula- 


92  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

tion  of  the  towns  and  smaller  cities  is  that  of  walk- 
ing up  and  down  the  streets  where  the  throng  is 
densest.  The  normal  recreation  for  rural  and  urban 
people  alike  on  a  holiday  is  that  of  rushing  to  the 
places  where  the  crowds  are  in  control. 

To  an  extent  the  gregarious  instinct  marks  off 
the  differences  between  species  and  races.  It  also 
helps  to  determine  the  nature  of  innumerable  forms 
of  social  alliances.  An  individual's  conduct  toward 
those  persons  whom  he  feels  to  be  like  himself  is 
instinctively  and  rationally  different  from  his  con- 
duct toward  the  persons  whose  actions  are  strange. 

In  early  times  when  population  traditions  were 
small  the  gregarious  instinct  played  an  important 
part  in  social  evolution,  because  it  kept  people  to- 
gether who  despite  a  common  set  of  group  tradi- 
tions might  have  drifted  apart  and  been  lost.  This 
group  life  occasioned  the  needs  for  laws  and  group 
institutions.  It  also  provided  the  conditions  of  ag- 
gregation in  which  alone  the  higher  development  of 
social  qualities  became  possible. 

While  original  nature  in  qualities  and  expressions 
varies,  yet  it  has  been  demonstrated  that  there  is  a 
common  unity  in  human  minds,  irrespective  of  geo- 
graphic, biologic,  and  psychologic  differences.  To 
certain  stimuli,  the  human  mind  everywhere  reacts 
similarly.  In  potential  mental  ability,  races  man- 
ifest resemblances.  The  fact  that  one  race  has  ad- 
vanced further  than  another  is  no  proof  of  its  su- 


GROUPS  AND  PSYCHOLOGIC  FACTORS       93 

perior  psychical  ability ;  it  has  probably  had  a  more 
favorable  environment  and  has  reaped  the  advan- 
tage of  cultural  momentum,  a  point  which  will  be 
considered  more  at  length  in  the  chapter  on  Racial 
Groups.  From  a  consideration  of  the  socio-psy- 
chical  nature  of  man  we  now  turn  to  present  the 
Sociologic  Factors. 


PROBLEMS 

1.  What  are  the  differences  between  instinctive  and  habit- 

ual reactions? 

2.  Why  are  women  as  a  rule  more  sympathetic  than  men? 

3.  Do  you  invent  much? 

4.  Is  the  potential  mental  ability  of  all  races  more  or  less 

equal  ? 

5.  Why  are  people  gregarious? 

6.  What  is  selfish  sociability? 

7.  Why  does  an  elderly  person  often  talk  aloud  to  himself? 

8.  What  is  essential  in  order  that  there  may  be  commun- 

ication between  individuals? 

9.  Are  nations   gregarious? 

10.  What  is  needed  for  the  development  of  complete  com- 
munication between  all  racial  and  national  groups  in 
the  world? 


CHAPTER  V 
GROUPS  AND  SOCIOLOGIC  FACTORS 


SOCIOLOGIC  FACTORS  are  those  which  arise  out  of 
social  situations.  They  are  to  be  distinguished 
from  physical  and  geographic  factors  which  are 
purely  objective.  They  are  not  the  same  as  the  bio- 
logic and  psychologic  factors,  for  these  are  inher- 
ited. They  spring  from  the  associative  life,  but  are 
psychological  and  even  biological  in  origin.  The  so- 
ciologic  factors  which  will  be  presented  here  are  first 
the  social  attitudes  and  values,  then  the  social  pro- 
cesses, and  finally  the  highest  social  processes  of  all, 
socialization  and  social  control. 

1.  Social  Attitudes  and  Values.  An  attitude  is 
a  tendency  to  act,  and  a  social  attitude  is  a  tendency 
to  act  with  reference  to  some  phase  of  associative 
life.  Social  attitudes  are  expressed  by  individuals 
with  reference  to  values  or  phases  of  the  social  en- 
vironment toward  which  individuals  are  attracted. 

The  social  attitudes  arise  from  original  human 
nature  and  also  in  social  heritage  and  in  group 
stimulation.  Drives  and  mechanisms  represent  the 
technique  by  which  social  attitudes  are  expressed. 
Emotional  reactions  and  sentiments,  dispositions 


GROUPS  AND  SOCIOLOGIC  FACTORS          95 

and  temperaments  must  also  be  understood  if  one 
would  penetrate  the  psychic  backgrounds  of  social 
attitudes.  The  human  desires,  wishes,  and  beliefs  are 
also  generic  to  social  attitudes.  Wishes  may  origi- 
nate chiefly  in  psychological  needs,  but  beliefs  are 
noticeably  social  in  their  development.  A  reference 
to  beliefs  leads  directly  to  the  field  of  sociallieritage 
and  group  stimulation. 

A  child's  attitudes  are  determined  generally  by 
the  customary  beliefs  of  parents,  teachers,  clergy, 
and  other  representatives  of  group  thinking.  In  the 
social  heritage  are  found  many  ideas  which  become 
objects  of  value,  and  hence  generate  social  attitudes. 
In  the  religious  heritage  are  ideas  of  immortality, 
brotherhood  of  man,  service,  and  personal  contact 
with  God — all  of  which  are  values  that  create  atti- 
tudes. In  the  political  heritage  are  ideas  of  national 
achievement  and  greatness  which  fascinate  the  hu- 
man mind  and  stimulate  specific  attitudes. 

Public  opinion  creates  values,  which  in  turn 
arouse  attitudes.  Favorable  opinion  gives  prestige; 
that  which  opinion  favors  is  reputable.  Opinion 
attracts  attention  to  specific  principles,  procedures, 
and  persons;  to  the  extent  that  it  approves,  whole 
floods  of  values  inundate  the  minds  of  individuals. 
Only  here  and  there  a  person  is  critical  enough  to 
view  with  his  full  reason  the  values  that  the  group 
establishes  through  its  unscientific  assumptions. 
Only  occasionally  does  a  person  discover  that  the 


96  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

scornful  estimate  of  group  opinion  may  be  ex- 
pressed irrationally.  In  the  long  run  however  pub- 
lic opinion  frees  itself  from  blind  emotional  reflexes 
and  roughly  represents  a  common  sense  judgment. 
In  a  later  chapter  public  opinion  will  be  considered 
in  more  detail  as  an  agent  of  control  in  determin- 
ing values  and  hence  social  attitudes. 

Law  may  be  cited  here  as  another  agency  which 
acts  as  a  judge  of  values  and  hence  as  a  creator  of 
attitudes ;  it  also  will  be  considered  in  another  chap- 
ter in  more  detail  as  a  factor  in  group  control.  Law 
represents  a  crystallization  of  public  opinion,  and 
thus  is  less  emotional  but  more  rigid.  When  it  settles 
upon  given  social  procedures  it  is  not  easily 
changed.  Law  establishes  values,  permanence,  and 
conservatism.  By  forceful,  objective  means  it  brings 
group  standards  and  necessities  before  the  individu- 
al's attention.  By  compelling  the  individual  to 
live  according  to  rule  and  regulation  it  may  in- 
directly force  him  to  develop  habits  of  acting  and 
thinking  built  upon  group  needs;  and  hence  ulti- 
mately lead  him  to  the  acceptance  of  new  attitudes. 
The  process  is  often  painful  and  costly  to  both  the 
individual  and  the  group,  but  nevertheless  cannot 
always  be  avoided.  A  weakness  in  modern  penal 
systems  is  the  fact  that  they  fail  lamentably  often- 
times in  controlling  punishment  so  that  the  atti- 
tudes of  the  anti-social  member  may  be  made  more 
socially  welcome. 


GROUPS  AND  SOCIOLOGIC  FACTORS          97 

In  times  of  group  crisis,  such  as  war,  values  and 
attitudes  undergo  rapid  modification.  When  the 
United  States  entered  the  World  War  there  was  a 
widespread  lethargy  regarding  the  necessity  of  send- 
ing millions  of  soldiers  to  Europe.  Pulpits,  news- 
papers, the  cinema,  government  representatives, 
four  minute  speakers,  and  others  joined  in  whirl- 
wind campaigns  throughout  the  country,  starting 
widespread  currents  of  feeling  and  opinion  concern- 
ing the  necessity  of  making  the  world  safe  for  de- 
mocracy and  of  fighting  to  end  war.  The  results 
were  almost  miraculous.  Millions  of  men  left  their 
accustomed  pursuits,  their  homes  and  loved  ones; 
they  entered  upon  training  for  war ;  they  embarked 
dauntlessly  on  ships  sailing  over  submarine-in- 
fested seas.  They  gave  up  temporarily,  or  if  need 
be  permanently,  the  values  of  constructive  peace  for 
the  values  of  destructive  war.  Their  social  attitudes 
shifted  from  earning  money,  following  personal  de- 
sires, and  enjoying  the  comforts  of  home  to  serving 
the  nation  at  the  cost  of  life  itself. 

The  primary  social  value  is  the  group.  At  the  ' 
crucial  tests  human  beings  give  up  their  loved  ones 
and  their  own  lives  for  the  sake  of  the  group.  Un- 
der the  flags  of  the  nations  millions  marched  to 
death  in  the  World  War.  Self  is  hesitatingly  if  not 
freely  placed  on  the  altar  of  the  group.  Group  opin- 
ion is  almost  all-powerful.  Favorable  group  opin- 
ion expands  personality;  unfavorable  group  judg- 


98  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

ments  constitute  the  severest  forms  of  punishments. 

The  welfare  of  loved  ones  is  another  leading  so- 
cial value.  -Ordinarily  it  is  primary.  For  the  sake 
of  members  of  the  family  group  and  closest  friends, 
an  individual  will  face  all  manner  of  risks,  even 
death.  For  their  sake  the  laborer  struggles  on  day 
by  day  in  earning  money  for  the  necessities  of  life, 
and  the  man  of  wealth  furnishes  them  with  the 
finest  comforts  of  life,  the  ablest  physicians  in  case 
of  sickness,  and  all  the  advantages  of  travel  if  these 
will  please. 

The  cause  of  truth,  creative  effort,  and  achieve- 
ment constitutes  a  set  of  highly  rated  values.  In 
these  directions,  the  best  years  of  life  are  spent  un- 
grudgingly. To  the  extent  that  these  factors  are 
given  fundamental  interpretations  they  rank  high 
among  social  values.  In  short,  the  social  values  are 
differentiated  in  many  ways,  too  numerous  to  pre- 
sent here,  depending  upon  the  level  of  civilization 
which  is  being  examined. 

Group  manufacture  of  values  and  individual  de- 
velopment of  social  attitudes  represent  the  main  el- 
ements in  the  social  process,  which  will  now  be  ex- 
amined. The  social  process  contains  in  itself  all 
group  and  interacting  personal  phenomena;  it  is 
the  central  theme  of  sociological  study. 

2.  The  Social  Process.  Upon  analysis  the  social 
process  is  found  to  be  characterized  by  various  el- 


GROUPS  AND  SOCIOLOGIC  FACTORS         99 

ements,  such  as  (1)  isolation,  (2)  interaction,  (3) 
competition,  (4)  accommodation,  (5)  co-operation, 
(6)  assimilation,  and  also  (7)  socialization  and 
(8)  social  control.  The  two  last  mentioned  pro- 
cesses are  so  important  that  they  will  be  treated  in 
a  separate  section  of  this  chapter. 

( 1 )  Isolation.  The  examination  of  any  group  at 
work,  even  of  a  committee,  shows  that  some  indi- 
viduals are  not  taking  part,  perhaps  they  are  not 
present.  They  are  not  interested;  their  attitudes 
have  led  their  minds  in  other  directions.  As  a  result 
they  are  isolated  from  the  active  members  of  the 
committee,  and  as  far  as  the  specific  committee  is 
concerned,  they  are  dead  timber  although  being  in 
other  connections  very  live  personalities. 

In  a  family,  one  member  may  become  separated 
from  the  rest  in  spirit  or  he  may  desert,  and  mutual 
isolation  result.  As  a  consequence  of  the  isolation 
the  family  remains  broken.  Isolation  is  the  chief 
objective  factor  in  broken  up  homes. 

The  most  important  cause  of  labor-capital  con- 
troversies today  perhaps  is  isolation.  Because  of 
isolation  the  laboring  man  does  not  understand  the 
capitalist;  and  for  the  same  reason  the  employer 
does  not  view  his  employees  with  unprejudiced  eyes 
and  an  understanding  mind. 

Isolation  between  races  leads  to  race  prejudices. 
Racial  groups  have  developed  in  different  parts  of 


100  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

the  earth  and  under  various  climatic  conditions; 
they  have  produced  different  cultures  and  types  of 
mental  reactions.  Because  of  lack  of  friendly  con- 
tacts, mutual  isolation  has  resulted,  and  misunder- 
standings, prejudices,  and  wars  have  taken  place. 
The  significance  of  racial  isolation  will  be  noted 
further  in  a  later  chapter. 

Isolation  between  nations  has  been  and  is  a  lead- 
ing cause  of  international  disputes.  Nations  have 
built  barriers  about  themselves ;  they  have  created 
permanent  crowd  emotions  of  an  egotistic  nature. 
When  a  peace  conference  is  held  in  Paris,  the  na- 
tions are  mutually  suspicious  and  unwilling  to  trust 
one  another,  although  each  claiming  to  be  honorable 
and  priding  itself  on  its  integrity  and  dependable- 
ness. 

Isolation  is  caused  by  lack  of  contact  on  the  same 
planes  of  sympathy  and  understanding.  It  involves 
/  an  inability  or  unwillingness  to  put  oneself  or  one's 
group  completely  in  the  position  of  the  other  fellow 
or  group,  and  consider  problems  unselfishly  and  in 
the  light  of  larger  societary  needs. 

«•*••*•*. 

2.  Interaction.  The  importance  of  interaction 
has  been  implied  in  the  preceding  paragraphs  and 
also  in  Chapter  I.  It  is  only  when  social  contacts 
exist  that  progress  can  result.  An  infant  could  not 
grow  to  mental  maturity  without  social  interaction. 
It  is  in  associative  life  that  adults  are  produced. 


GROUPS  AND  SOCIOLOGIC  FACTORS        101 

Groups  likewise  grow  through  interaction.  A  po- 
litical party,  for  example,  that  is  in  supreme  control 
of  the  government,  tends  to  become  self-centered, 
careless,  conceited,  and  corrupt.  A  victorious  nation 
may  become  intoxicated  with  power,  scorning  to  as- 
sociate on  democratic  terms  with  weaker  peoples, 
and  thereby  find  itself  isolated  and  perhaps  hated 
by  other  nations. 

* 

Interaction  is  interstimulation.  It  draws  out, 
accelerates,  and  discovers  unsuspected  powers.  It 
increases  mental  activity,  leads  to  comparisons  of 
effort  and  through  competition  brings  about  tests 
of  ability  and  achievement.  Interaction  uncovers 
old  problems  and  creates  new  ones ;  it  enlarges  hu- 
man horizons,  sets  new  tasks,  and  electrifies  persons 
and  groups  alike. 

Interaction  brings  customs  into  conflict,  with  the 
result  that  the  less  worthy  are  unable  long  to  with- 
stand invidious  comparisons.  It  forces  the  old  to 
compete  with  the  new,  the  new  with  the  new,  and 
also  shows  the  need  for  new  advances.  Interaction 
brings  individuals  and  groups  into  co-operation. 
Lifelong  friendships,  permanent  organizations,  un- 
selfish world  enterprises,  and  new  racial  stocks  re- 
sult. Interaction  leads  to  the  formation  of  all  as- 
sociative undertakings. 

3.  Conflict.  Conflict  is  often  the  primary  outcome 
of  interaction.  When  strangers  meet,  each  is 


102  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

suspicious  of  the  other ;  each  is  on  the  defensive.  If 
either  makes  a  false  move,  the  other  replies  with  an 
appropriate  response,  and  an  incipient  encounter  is 
under  way. 

Conflict  between  unequal  forces  means  that  the 
weaker  will  be  lost  in  the  stronger.  When  the  earth 
and  a  meteor  come  together  the  latter  is  destroyed 
by  the  former.  When  a  powerful  football  team 
meets  a  weaker  untrained  aggregation  of  players, 
neither  team  learns  any  football.  No  contest  is  ex- 
citing when  the  contenders  are  unequal  in  ability. 

Conflict  between  equals  brings  out  the  best  efforts 
in  both.  It  may  end  in  a  deadlock,  but  more  likely 
in  a  compromise.  When  two  trained  debaters  of 
equal  ability  meet,  each  is  likely  to  surpass  his  past 
record. 

Conflict  may  take  the  form  of  destructive  or  con- 
structive competition.  The  opponents  may  struggle 
surreptitiously  against  each  other,  seeking  by  cal- 
umny and  chicanery  to  undermine  the  other's  rep- 
utation and  strength.  In  the  neighborhood  group, 
families  may  gossip  about  each  other  to  the  de- 
struction of  each  other's  reputation.  In  the  in- 
dustrial world  employers'  associations  and  radical 
labor  organizations  may  exhaust  the  catalogue  of 
pernicious  and  subtle  means  of  combat. 

Conflict  may  take  place  between  a  small  group 
and  a  large  group,  between  a  minority  and  a  ma- 
jority, between  a  new  idea  and  established  dogma. 


GROUPS  AND  SOCIOLOGIC  FACTORS        103 

When  conflict  waxes  hot,  it  may  degenerate  into 
verbal  gunplay,  deception,  and  malicious  lying.  Any 
dying  cause  whether  slavery,  alcoholism,  or  czarism 
resorts  sooner  or  later  to  every  conceivable  means 
of  misrepresentation. 

On  the  other  hand  conflict  and  competition  may 
be  constructive  and  mutually  wholesome.  Children 
competing  in  games  may  all  gain  physically  and 
mentally.  Neighborhoods  may  compete  on  "Clean 
Up"  days  to  the  advantage  of  all  concerned;  they 
may  vie  with  one  another  in  Red  Cross  drives  not 
only  to  their  own  advantage  but  to  that  of  the  Red 
Cross  and  of  needy  people  in  remote  parts  of  the 
world. 

4.  Accommodation.  Conflicts  often  end  in  com- 
promise. After  struggling  for  a  long  time  with 
great  losses  and  few  gains  each  side  learns  to  toler- 
ate the  other  and  perhaps  to  recede  from  the  earlier 
demands  that  were  made  upon  the  other.  Accom- 
modation is  the  method  of  toleration,  arbitration, 
and  compromise.  It  is  the  only  feasible  social  pro- 
cess where  the  contending  parties  possess  more  or 
less  equally  the  same  social  and  moral  values  and 
where  each  is  somewhat  equally  wrong. 

Accommodation  is  the  wise  but  not  commonly 
sought  procedure  when  a  minority  is  in  the  wrong. 
However,  it  is  at  this  point  that  martyrs  are  made. 
There  would  probably  be  no  martyrs  if  the  spirit 


104  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

of  accommodation  prevailed  everywhere.  It  is  nec- 
essary that  some  individuals  stand  out  unflinching- 
ly against  the  majority  or  the  established  order,  if 
need  be,  to  their  death.  By  sacrificing  all,  they  at- 
tract attention  to  the  wrong  for  which  they  fought 
and  start  social  currents  in  motion  which  finally 
overthrow  gigantic  evils. 

Oftentimes  the  representatives  of  long  established 
classes  fail  to  accept  compromise  situations  and  go 
down  to  ignominious  and  utter  defeat.  The  princi- 
ples of  conduct  which  obtained  a  half  century  ago 
for  a  social  organization  no  longer  suffice  in  a  dy- 
namic society.  The  leaders  of  economic,  religious, 
or  other  groups  must  be  alert  to  social  changes  and 
needs,  and  be  willing  to  sacrifice  privileges  if  need 
be  in  order  that  human  needs  may  be  met.  By  such 
accommodation  they  may  maintain  themselves  in 
positions  of  leadership  indefinitely.  When  Bis 
marck  inaugurated  measures  of  social  insurance  he 
appeased  the  socialist;  by  such  accommodation  he 
continued  in  power. 

A  privileged  class  always  tends  to  violate  the 
principle  of  accommodation.  They  become  react- 
ionary and  by  so  doing  provoke  the  liberalist  to  be- 
come radical.  The  result  is  generally  revolution. 
Accommodation  is  the  method  of  evolution;  it  rep- 
resents adaptation  to  environmental  needs. 
>  Accommodations  may  be  either  passive  or  active. 
Animal  life  is  full  of  illustrations  of  passive  accom- 


GROUPS  AND  SOCIOLOGIC  FACTORS        105 

modation,  a  process  which  is  the  main  element, 
psychologically,  in  organic  evolution.  It  is  a  pro- 
cess in  which  the  environment  makes  over  the  indi- 
vidual. Fraternities,  college  student  bodies,  church- 
es, a  group  of  friends,  and  other  groups  may  grad- 
ually and  even  subtly  change  an  individual,  espec- 
ially a  young  person,  from  a  low  to  a  high  or  from  a 
high  to  a  low  level  of  living.  Active  accommodation, 
on  the  other  hand,  is  a  process  whereby  the  individ- 
ual transforms  the  environment.  It  is  represented 
for  example  by  the  social  phenomena  of  leadership. 
The  person  who  does  something  better  than  his  fel- 
lows is  in  a  position  to  modify  the  attitudes  of  his 
fellows. 

(5)  Co-operation.  Progress  moves  from  isolation 
to  co-operation.  By  co-operation  is  meant  a  pro- 
cess whereby  the  respective  units  are  consciously 
aware  of  the  place  each  may  best  fill  in  a  specific 
enterprise,  and  best  concentrate  their  energies  up- 
on filling  these  places.  Such  co-operation  is  rational 
and  social. 

Co-operation  may  represent  a  blind  cog-in-the- 
wheel  situation.  Under  such  conditions,  individuals 
not  only  lose  their  identity  but  also  their  self-con- 
sciausness.  They  possess  no  creative  joy  in  effort; 
they  are  sacrificed  to  the  god  of  organization.  Over- 
organization  represents  a  deadening  form  of  activ- 
ity. In  the  animal  world  there  is  over-organization 


106  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

as  found  in  a  hive  of  bees,  whose  individual  units 
represent  not  individuality  but  helpless  subservience 
to  mechanistic  principles. 

Over-organization  is  sometimes'  caused  by  the 
formation  of  too  many  groups.  Student  bodies  are 
often  over-organized ;  modern  city  life  may  likewise 
be  over-organized,  so  much  so  that  many  per- 
sons spend  their  entire  time  in  going  from  com- 
mittee meeting  to  committee  meeting.  Over-organ- 
ization in  this  sense  may  easily  mean  over-med- 
dling. Moreover,  under  any  conditions  over-organ- 
ization means  suppression  of  individual  initiative 
and  the  crushing  of  personal  growth. 

Co-operation  involves  multiplication  of  efforts.  A 
group  working  together  may  generate  unbounded 
enthusiasm  and  volitional  power.  There  is  almost 
no  limit  to  the  achievements  of  a  thoroughly  co- 
operating group.  Co-operation  constitutes  morale. 
It  also  means  efficiency.  By  specialization  of  effort 
with  the  resultant  concentration  of  attention  upon 
minutiae  it  is  possible  to  secure  efficiency  ©f  the 
highest  type  at  the  lowest  cost,  but,  however,  at  the 
expense  of  human  development  and  creativeness. 

Co-operation  on  the  rational  plane  then  is  an 
acting  together,  but  not  so  completely  that  the  in- 
dividual units  are  slaves  to  the  specific  organization. 
It  produces  enthusiasm,  morale,  efficiency,  re- 
doubled efforts,  and  at  its  best  the  highest  degree 
of  creative  effort. 


GROUPS  AND  SOCIOLOGIC  FACTORS        107 

(6)  Assimilation.  Assimilation  is  the  process 
whereby  the  social  attitudes  of  persons  are  united 
in  a  co-ordinated  system  of  thought,  thus  pro- 
ducing a  unified  group,  a  substantial  group  morale, 
and  leading  to  dependable  group  activity  and  ad- 
vance. It  is  a  normal  outgrowth  of  interaction, 
constructive  types  of  conflict,  accommodation,  and 
co-operation.  It  is  illustrated  concretely  and  at 
length  in  the  chapter  on  Racial  Groups. 

Two  more  social  processes  remain  to  be  analyzed, 
namely,  of  socialization  and  social  control.  The 
importance  of  these  processes  is  so  great  and  they 
will  be  referred  to  so  frequently  in  the  remaining 
chapters  of  this  book  that  the  immediate  treatment 
of  the  theme  will  be  merely  introductory. 

3.  Socialization  and  Social  Control.  A  child's  at- 
titudes originate  in  narrow,  circumscribed,  and  sel- 
fish reactions;  they  also  have  their  origin  in  gre- 
garious, play,  and  similar  tendencies.  In  the  early 
years  of  life  the  narrow  and  more  egoistic  impulses 
dominate  the  child.  In  fact  their  inherited  force 
is  so  strong  that  life  becomes  a  process  of  controlling 
and  socializing  them.  In  a  sense  discipline  is  a  sys- 
tem of  controlling  the  self-assertive  forces. 

The  child's  gregarious  and  group  nature  also  as- 
serts itself.  For  example,  the  child  demands  play- 
mates. If  he  cannot  do  otherwise,  he  will  imagine 
playmates ;  he  will  personify  the  material  objects  of 


108  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

his  environment  and  talk  to  them,  scold  them,  and 
love  them. 

While  deeply  grounded  in  inherited  tendencies  of 
great  age,  the  social  nature  and  the  selfish  nature 
are  both  developed  in  and  through  group  life.  The 
need  for  group  survival  and  individual  survival  are 
causal  factors.  The  nature  of  the  environmental 
influences  controls  to  a  large  degree  the  develop- 
ment of  the  social  and  selfish  impulses,  or  the  group 
and  anti-group  behavior  of  the  individual. 

As  a  person  matures,  as  he  faces  one  harsh  ex- 
perience after  another,  as  he  sometimes  loses  that 
which  he  values  highly,  his  social  nature  may  secure 
the  ascendency,  or  he  may  become  embittered.  By 
suffering,  persons  learn  to  be  sympathetic  and  un- 
selfishly interested  in  the  welfare  of  others.  Provid- 
ing it  does  not  prove  too  overwhelming,  suffering 
acts  as  a  socializing  agency. 

As  a  rule  the  social  nature  is  likely  to  be  limited 
in  its  attitudes  to  a  few  persons,  and  only  in  general 
ways  to  the  members  of  large  groups.  With  the 
expansion  of  experience  a  person  may  come  to  iden- 
tify himself  with  a  corporate  group,  an  university, 
a  community,  or  a  nation.  This  expression  often 
arises  out  of  selfish  attitudes,  that  is,  a  person  may 
identify  himself  with  a  group  in  order  to  become  a 
hero,  to  secure  election  to  office,  or  to  increase  his 
business  success.  The  social  nature  may  be  used 
by  a  person  selfishly. 


GROUPS  AND  SOCIOLOGIC  FACTORS        109 

Moreover,  the  social  nature  of  many  persons  ex- 
presses itself  toward  only  circumscribed  groups, 
while  the  selfish  nature  operates  toward  all  larger 
groups.  A  person  can  be  a  kind  husband  and  fa- 
ther but  anti-social  in  dealing  with  employees,  or 
in  racial  matters.  On  the  other  hand  some  persons 
are  arbitrary  and  unjust  in  the  family  circle,  toward 
certain  neighbors,  but  at  the  same  time  professing 
the  finest  principles  of  Christian  brotherhood. 

The  highest  type  of  social  nature  is  that  in  which 
the  social  attitudes  are  fully  developed  and  steadily 
in  control;  it  is  one  which  gives  unselfishly;  and 
that  while  respecting  self,  gives  it  away  without  ask- 
ing or  thinking:  What  am  I  going  to  gain?  Social- 
ization involves  a  genuine  and  unselfish  identifica- 
tion of  one's  self  with  the  welfare  of  other  persons, 
of  one's  groups,  and  of  other  groups. 

The  most  far-reaching  social  process  is  social  con- 
trol, a  process  which  will  be  analyzed  in  Chapters 
XVII — XIX.  Social  control,  or  more  specifically 
group  control,  is  the  process  by  which  groups  in- 
fluence their  members.  Social  control  utilizes  so- 
cial pressures  and  social  stimulations.  The  group 
usually  accentuates  to  an  extreme  the  use  of  pres- 
sures of  one  kind  or  another.  It  represses  blindly ; 
it  is  suspicious  of  individual  variations  from  the 
established  order. 

On  the  other  hand  social  control  sometimes  se- 
cures expression  through  the  use  of  rewards,  honors, 


110  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

and  prizes.  It  usually  stimulates  individuals  to  act 
with  courage  along  customary  lines ;  it  is  chary  with 
its  rewards  to  those  whose  constructive  programs  in- 
volve the  destruction  of  old  and  revered  ideas  and 
technique. 

Social  control  manifests  itself  most  tangibly  in 
the  form  of  group  structures  or  social  institutions. 
These  represent  the  standardizations  of  associative 
opinion.  Social  institutions  are  products  of  group 
and  personal  feeling  and  opinions.  These  social 
products  tend  to  become  inflexible,  rigid,  and  im- 
perious ;  they  are  slow  to  change,  slower  than  hu- 
man needs,  and  hence  as  agents  of  social  pressure 
they  become  tools  of  social  repression.  Undue  and 
prolonged  institutional  pressure  causes  a  virile 
group  to  remonstrate  and  leads  to  revolution,  a 
destructive  and  costly  method  of  progress. 

The  leading  social  institutions  today  are  the 
home,  play  facilities,  occupations,  the  school,  the 
church,  and  communities  including  national  and  in- 
ternational organizations;  these  have  each  devel- 
oped specific  forms  of  group  life.  Wider  social  divi- 
sions are  represented  by  rural  and  urban  groups, 
and  by  racial  groups.  Social  institutions  are  the 
leading  tangible  vehicles  of  control;  they  are  also 
the  objective,  crystallized  products  of  social  atti- 
tudes. They  hold  groups  steady,  sometimes  too 
steady. 

In  this  chapter  the  leading  social  forces,  as  dis- 


GROUPS  AND  SOCIOLOGIC  FACTORS        111 

tinguished  from  physical,  biological,  and  socio-psy- 
chological  factors  have  been  treated  under  the  head- 
ing of  social  attitudes  and  their  inseparable  com- 
plements, the  social  values.  The  social  process 
has  been  viewed  in  its  constitutent  elements,  rang- 
ing from  the  static  factor  of  isolation  to  its  highest 
constitutent  process,  socialization,  and  to  its  main 
technique,  social  or  group  control.  Social  beings 
themselves  are  largely  the  products  of  grouping; 
they  are  able  to  mature  only  in  group  life.  Our  so- 
ciological quest  now  takes  us  upon  an  analysis  of 
the  leading  human  groups. 


PROBLEMS 

1.  Analyze  an  attitude  that  you  now  hold,  showing  how  it 

originated. 

2.  Illustrate  a  change  in  attitude  that  you  have  experienced. 

3.  Illustrate  the  difference  between  an  attitude  and  a  value. 

4.  Give  a  new  illustration  of  isolation. 

5.  Why  do  people  co-operate? 

6.  Have  you  experienced  socialization  in  any  regard? 

7.  To  how  rnany  groups  do  you  belong,  and  how  long 

have  you  belonged  to  each? 

8.  In  what  ways  have  you  experienced  group  control? 

9.  Illustrate  social  pressure. 
}0.  Illustrate  social  stimulation. 


CHAPTER  VI. 
THE  FAMILY  GROUP 


OF  ALL  THE  human  groups  the  family  is  in  many 
ways  by  far  the  most  important.  From  its  basic 
units,  the  father  and  mother,  the  child  receives  his 
physical  heritage,  that  is,  a  strong  or  weak  mental 
and  physical  organism,  a  healthy  or  puny  start  in 
life.  From  the  family  the  child  receives  his  social 
heritage,  and  his  earliest  attitudes  toward  life.  The 
family's  social,  religious,  political  and  other  points 
of  view  are  likely  to  determine  his  social  attitudes 
for  a  term  of  years  if  not  for  life.  In  the  family  he 
learns  obedience  and  the  meaning  of  discipline ;  the 
type  of  citizen  that  he  will  become  is  determined  to 
an  extent  by  the  training  he  receives  at  home. 

When  he  reaches  adult  life,  he  leaves  the  parental 
family  in  order  to  establish  a  family  of  his  own.  By 
the  processes  of  courtship  and  romantic  love  he 
marries,  having  chosen  thoughtlessly  or  thought- 
fully a  potential  mother  for  the  children  that  may 
be  born  into  the  new  family  group.  The  young 
woman  possessing  a  mental  and  physical  heritage, 
and  having  received  a  social  heritage  and  a  training 
from  the  parental  family,  likewise  marries,  having 


THE   FAMILY  GROUP  113 

chosen  thoughtlessly  or  thoughtfully  a  young  man 
to  be  the  father  of  the  children  that  she  may  bear. 

The  two  young  people,  the  product  of  two  differ- 
ent family  groups,  establish  through  the  social  in- 
stitution of  marriage  their  own  family  group.  Their 
viewpoint  changes,  for  instead  of  being  son  and 
daughter  sometimes  remonstrating  against  parental 
direction,  they  now  play  the  part  of  disciplining 
father  and  mother.  Thus  family  groups  break  up, 
new  ones  are  established,  and  the  process  of  per- 
sonal growth  and  social  evolution  goes  on. 

1.  The  History  of  the  Family.  The  student  may 
gain  an  understanding  of  the  significance  of  the 
family  and  marriage  as  social  institutions  by  con- 
sidering their  early  history  and  development. 
Among  primitive  people  the  mother  and  child  were 
the  stable  units  in  the  family  group.  The  father 
roamed,  coming  home  irregularly,  staying  away  for 
periods  of  time.  The  helplessness  of  the  infant  com- 
pelled the  mother  to  lead  a  home  life.  The  irregu- 
larity of  the  father's  habits  made  it  necessary  for 
the  mother  to  gather  fruit,  to  plant  seeds,  and  de- 
velop a  crude  form  of  hoe-culture.  The  father,  en- 
gaged in  the  hunt  and  chase,  led  a  more  exciting 
life,  and  came  in  contact  with  a  larger  variety  of 
experiences. 

In  early  human  history  the  family  in  which  the 
mother  rather  than  the  father  was  the  leading  rnem- 


114  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

her  was  common.  It  is  known  as  the  metronymic 
family.  The  child  took  the  mother's  name;  proper- 
ty was  transferred  through  the  mother.  The  met- 
ronymic family  was  well  developed,  for  example, 
among  many  North  American  Indian  tribes.  The 
Iroquois  Indians  have  been  pronounced  a  typical 
metronymic  people,  among  whom  the  government 
of  the  clans  was  to  a  degree  in  the  hands  of  matrons 
as  women  councilors,  elected  by  the  males  of  the 
given  clans. 

Where  the  pastoral  form  of  life  existed  and  where 
flocks  and  herds  were  kept,  the  father  was  the  chief 
factor  in  the  family.  The  grazing  of  flocks  and 
herds  required  considerable  territory ;  small  groups 
of  people  widely  separated  from  each  other  repre- 
sented the  population  situation.  The  wife  and 
mother  was  removed  from  the  influence  and  author- 
ity of  her  kindred ;  the  husband's  power  over  her  by 
virtue  of  her  isolation  was  supreme. 

Under  pastoral  conditions,  men  owned  and  con- 
trolled the  flocks ;  the  owners  of  the  family  property 
controlled  in  a  real  sense  the  family  itself.  The 
children  took  the  father'  name  and  inherited  prop- 
erty through  him ;  the  eldest  living  son  usually  suc- 
ceeded to  the  rulers  hip  of  the  family  group.  Warfare 
gave  men  increased  influence  over  women.  The 
women  captured  in  war  were  held  as  slaves  and 
wives  by  their  captors.  The  form  of  the  family 
with  rfie  man  at  the  head,  possessing  authority  over 


THE  FAMILY  GROUP  115 

if  not  ownership  of  the  wife  and  children,  is  known 
as  the  patronymic  or  patriarchal  family. 

In  early  social  history  a  method  of  purchasing 
wives  was  known.  The  purchased  wives  as  well  as 
the  women  captured  in  warfare  were  held  as  the 
property  of  the  men.  In  these  and  other  ways  the 
patriarchal  type  of  family  life  became  common.  At 
its  best  it  is  found  among  the  early  Hebrews.  The 
Old  Testament  affords  many  descriptions  of  patri- 
archal families,  such  as  those  of  Abraham,  Isaac, 
and  Jacob. 

The  ancient  Hebrew  family  is  noted  for  the  rel- 
atively excellent  care  given  the  children.  "Honor 
thy  father  and  thy  mother;  that  thy  days  may  be 
long  upon  the  land  which  the  Lord  thy  God  giveth 
thee."  Such  was  the  fundamental  principle  which 
the  Hebrew  family  bequeathed  to  the  world— 
to  the  world's  great  gain.  Because  this  principle  is 
being  ignored  in  many  modern  homes,  nations  are 
endangered  and  progress  is  throttled. 

An  overemphasis  upon  parental  control  leads  to 
ancestor  worship.  According  to  this  procedure  the 
welfare  of  the  living  depends  upon  the  active  good 
will  of  the  departed  ancestors.  In  order  to  insure 
one's  happiness,  a  man's  first  duty  is  that  of  rear- 
ing a  family  that  will  continue  the  ancestral  con- 
trol. China's  emphasis  upon  family  stability  and 
ancestor  worship  explains  in  part  her  long  life  as  a 
people. 


116  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

Ancestor  worship  existed  among  the  Romans  at 
an  early  date.  The  early  Roman  family,  seven 
centuries  B.C.,  was  patriarchal;  it  maintained  it- 
self on  the  religious  basis  of  ancestor  worship.  The 
family  life  centered  about  the  ancestral  gods;  the 
habitation  in  which  the  family  group  lived  was 
virtually  a  temple,  with  the  patriarchal  head  pos- 
sessing the  power  of  a  god  over  the  women  and 
children.  The  house  father  had  almost  absolute 
power  over  all  the  members  of  the  family.  He 
could  not  always  act  arbitrarily ;  he  was  controlled 
by  what  he  believed  was  the  will  of  the  ancestors. 

Property  was  held  by  the  eldest  living  male  mem- 
ber of  the  family ;  it  was  held  in  trust  for  the  good 
of  the  entire  family.  In  early  Roman  times,  this 
eldest  living  male  member  or  house  father  could 
not  make  a  will.  At  his  death  the  property  passed 
automatically  to  the  eldest  living  son. 

Marriage  was  practically  indissoluble  and  divorce 
unknown.  It  is  said  that  for  five  centuries  after  the 
founding  of  Rome,  the  town  had  no  divorces.  This 
Roman  family  life  thus  was  characterized  by  great 
stability.  Although  the  family  life  was  patriarchal 
and  women  and  children  were  in  subjection,  it 
nevertheless  was  of  a  fairly  high  order,  although 
not  as  elevated  as  the  Hebrew  family  life  at  its  best. 

The  pendulum  swung  to  the  other  extreme ;  fam- 
ily life  began  to  decay.  When  this  disintegration 
reached  its  height,  the  fate  of  Rome  was  sealed.  If 


THE   FAMILY  GROUP  117 

Rome  had  maintained  a  high  type  of  family,  her 
history  would  undoubtedly  have  been  entirely  dif- 
ferent. 

The  decadence  was  caused  by  several  factors.  The 
family  began  to  lose  its  religious  significance.  When 
marriage  became  a  civil  contract  merely,  it  was 
viewed  too  lightly.  The  authority  of  the  house 
father  was  broken.  The  right  to  make  a  will  was  es- 
tablished. The  father  was  first  given  the  right  to  di- 
vide his  property  among  his  children,  and  then  to 
bequeath  it  to  whom  he  pleased.  When  the  family 
property  was  thus  broken  up  in  units,  and  scattered, 
the  family  as  an  institution  lost  prestige.  Women 
were  given  the  right  to  hold  property,  and  in  the 
second  century  B.C.  to  divorce  their  husbands. 
Marriages  were  made  and  broken  at  will;  tem- 
porary marriages  were  common ;  sex  relations  were 
loose ;  and  sexual  immorality  flourished. 

The  women  of  the  higher  social  classes  achieved 
emancipation,  and  were  at  liberty  to  do  as  they  saw 
fit.  They  formed  and  dissolved  marriages  freely. 
The  personal  liberty  of  both  men  and  women  was 
extended  beyond  the  control  of  their  passions. 

The  downfall  of  the  family  group  in  Roman  life 
may  be  thus  attributed  to  three  main  sets  of  causes. 
(1)  The  decay  of  religious  beliefs,  inadequate  as 
they  were  and  promulgated  by  narrow-minded  big- 
ots, was  a  leading  factor  in  the  disintegration  of  the 
family.  (2)  The  habits  of  vice,  particularly  of 


118  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

sexual  vice,  that  were  common  among  Roman 
young  men  and  were  winked  at  by  the  young 
women,  undermined  true  love  and  genuine  family 
life.  (3)  The  changes  in  economic  conditions, 
such  as  the  expansion  of  commerce  and  manufac- 
ture, and  the  growth  of  cities  tended  to  destroy  the 
social  situations  in  which  the  family  had  been  a 
fundamental  unit. 

Christianity  represented  the  next  set  of  influences 
that  vitally  affected  the  family  as  a  social  institu- 
ion.  It  began  promptly  upon  its  Western  invasion 
to  reconstruct  the  family  life  in  Europe.  (1)  Chris- 
tianity brought  the  support  of  religion  to  the  family 
again.  It  recognized  marriage  as  a  sacrament  and 
opposed  the  idea  that  marriage  is  simply  a  civil  con- 
tract; it  ascribed  to  marriage  a  religious  nature  and 
thus  gave  it  stability  once  more. 

(2)  Christianity  opposed    divorce.     When    the 
church  came  into  power   in   Western    Europe,    it 
brought  about  a  change  whereby  divorce  as  a  legal 
institution  was  no  longer  accredited.    In  the  place 
of  divorce,  legal  separation  was   recognized.    The 
church  took  a  strict  attitude  against  divorce. 

(3)  Christianity  exalted  the  position  of  woman 
and  secured  a  new  interest  in  the  welfare  of  chil- 
dren.   For  the  patriarchal  type  of  family,  Christian- 
ity succeeded   in    substituting   a    semi-patriarchal 
form,  in  which  the  position  of  the  husband  and  fa- 
ther while  not  supreme  as  in  the  case  of  the  Hebrew, 


THE   FAMILY  GROUP  119 

Greek,  and  early  Roman  families,  exercised  a  con- 
trol out  of  proportion  to  the  importance  given  the 
other  members  of  the  family.  This  type  persisted  in 
Western  civilization  until  the  latter  part  of  the 
nineteenth  century.  In  rebuilding  the  institution 
of  the  family  in  the  early  centuries,  even  on  semi- 
patriarchal  lines,  Christianity  performed  an  inesti- 
mable social  service. 

With  the  Renaissance  came  the  separation  of  the 
church  and  state  and  the  consequent  weakening  of 
the  authority  of  the  church.  Consequently,  the 
family  again  began  to  lose  its  significance  as  a  re- 
ligious institution.  When  marriage  once  more 
came  to  be  regarded  by  many  persons  solely  as  a 
civil  contract,  the  way  was  open  for  divorce. 

By  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  the 
movement  known  as  individualism  had  reached  a 
remarkable  growth.  Tnis  rise  of  individualism  was 
accompanied  by  a  decline  in  the  part  played  by 
authority  in  social  life ;  the  patriarchal  type  of  fam- 
ily also  began  to  decline,  and  the  idea  gradually  de- 
veloped that  either  party  to  the  marriage  vows 
could  break  these  vows  according  to  his  or  her  in- 
dividual desires. 

Economic  changes  at  the  beginning  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  seriously  affected  tjie  status  of  the 
family.  Under  the  domestic  system  of  industry 
which  reached  its  height  in  the  eighteenth  century, 
the  family  was  the  industrial  unit ;  all  manufacture 


120  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

was  carried  on  in  the  home,  and  all  members  of  the 
family  group  as  well  as  the  helpers  worked  together 
democratically. 

The  discovery  of  steam  power,  the  invention  of 
steam-driven  machinery,  and  the  development  of 
the  factory  system  all  tended,  however,  to  destroy 
the  economic  unity  of  the  family.  The  members  of 
the  family,  the  men,  the  women,  and  even  the  boys 
and  girls  left  the  home  for  the  factory  as  the  place 
of  work.  With  the  breaking  down  of  the  economic 
unity  of  the  family,  there  came  also  a  disintegration 
of  the  social  cohesion  existing  between  the  members 
of  the  family. 

Another  influence  affecting  the  family  in  West- 
ern civilization  in  the  last  century  was  the  enor- 
mous growth  of  wealth.  The  possession  of  wealth 
has  emancipated  peoples  from  various  forms  of  fear, 
even  religious  fears;  it  has  tended  to  make  them 
feel  self  sufficient.  In  other  words,  the  growth  of 
wealth  has  favored  a  lowering  of  moral  standards 
and  often  a  looseness  in  marriage  relations. 

In  the  next  place,  the  nineteenth  century  was 
one  of  increasing  social  unrest.  The  family  felt  the 
effects  of  this  unrest,  and  found  itself  at  the  dawn 
of  the  twentieth  century  in  the  midst  of  social 
change  and  confusion. 

It  is  now  in  place  to  take  up  the  thread  of  discus- 
sion concerning  marriage  in  detail.  Marriage  is  a 
procedure  which  admits  men  and  women  to  famil} 


THE   FAMILY   GROUP  121 

life,  that  is,  to  living  in  the  socially  sacred  relation- 
ships of  husband  and  wife.  This  procedure  has  so- 
cial approbation  and  may  have  religious  approval, 
in  fact,  may  be  conducted  under  religious  auspices,. 
Marriage  as  a  social  institution  has  had  significant 
backgrounds. 

In  certain  parts  of  the  earth  the  practice  of  pol- 
yandry exists.  It  is  a  form  of  marriage  where  one 
woman  has  more  than  one  husband  at  a  given  time. 
It  is  found,  for  example,  in  Tibet,  where  the  condi- 
tions of  life  are  harsh  and  where  the  efforts  of  two 
or  more  men  are  needed  in  order  that  a  family  may 
be  supported.  It  is  a  relatively  unsatisfactory  and 
rare  type  of  marriage  relationship. 

Another  form  of  marriage  that  has  existed  to  a 
small  extent  in  all  ages  is  polygyny,  a  situation  in 
which  one  man  has  several  living  wives.  Polygyny 
is  closely  related  to  the  institution  of  slavery.  Wom- 
en captured  in  warfare  became  the  wives  and 
slaves  of  their  captors.  A  chieftain  might  purchase 
a  dozen  women  for  wives,  in  the  same  manner  that 
he  would  buy  any  form  of  personal  property. 

Polygyny  did  not  develop  to  any  extent  until  hu- 
man groups  had  accumulated  some  degree  of 
wealth,  at  least,  attained  sufficient  degree  of  eco- 
nomic efficiency  to  enable  one  man  to  support  sever- 
al families.  Hence,  even  in  countries  where  polyg- 
yny is  legal,  as  in  Turkey  and  Egypt,  only  a  small 
proportion  of  the  people,  namely,  the  wealthier 


122  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

practice  it. 

Polygyny  is  based  on  the  lower  and  degraded  im- 
pulses of  the  male  sex ;  it  exists  as  a  sacrifice  to  the 
development  of  the  highest  affections.  It  rests  upon 
the  subjection  and  degradation  of  woman;  it  allows 
no  high  regard  for  the  feelings  of  woman.  Under 
this  expression,  children  and  aged  parents  suffer 
grievous  neglect.  Polyandry  and  polygyny  together 
are  often  referred  to  under  the  single  term,  po- 
lygamy, meaning  etymologically,  much  married. 

Monogamy,  or  the  marriage  of  one  man  and  one 
woman,  has  been  always  and  everywhere  the  lead- 
ing type  of  marriage.  In  Western  civilization,  mo- 
nogamy has  been  sanctioned  by  custom,  religion, 
and  law.  The  social  advantages  of  monogamy  are 
now  well  recognized ;  they  have  been  stated  by  va- 
rious writers,  and  scientific  observers  agree  on  the 
following  points. 

(1)  Monogamy  secures    the    superior    care   of 
children.    Under  it,  both  father  and  mother  unite 
their  efforts  in  the  care  of  the  children.    A  greater 
and  better  degree  of  attention  can  be  given  to  the 
training  of  children  by  both  parents  under  monoga- 
my than  under  any  other  expression  of  marriage 
relationship. 

(2)  The  monogamic  family  alone  produces  the 
highest  type  of  affection,  of  altruistic  love,  of  un- 
selfish devotion.    Under  polygyny,  the  father  can- 


THE   FAMILY  GROUP  123 

not  devote  himself  fully  to  his  children  individually 
or  to  each  of  his  wives  because  he  is  in  reality  the 
head  of  several  households ;  fatherhood  in  the  com- 
plete sense  rarely  exists  under  polygyny.  Isolation 
is  common.  Under  monogamy,  on  the  other  hand, 
both  father  and  mother  commonly  sacrifice  many 
selfish  desires  in  the  mutual  care  of  children. 

(3)  Monogamy  creates  more  definite  and  strong- 
er family  ties  than  any  other  form  of  marriage ;  af- 
fection between  parents,  between  parents  and  chil- 
dren, and  between  children    themselves    is    more 
wholesome.  Legal  relationships  and  blood  relation- 
ships are  simpler,  less  entangled,  and  less  frequently 
the  cause  of  permanent  and  annoying  frictions ;  the 
cohesive  power  of  the  family  is  greater.  As  a  result, 
monogamic  families  tend  to  increase  the  unity  and 
cohesiveness  of  society  itself. 

(4)  Monogamy  favors  not  only  the  preservation 
of  the  lives  of  the  children  but  also  of  the  parents. 
It  is  only  under  monogamy  that  aged  parents  are 
cared  for  to  any  great  extent  by  their  children.  Un- 
der polygyny,  the  wife  who  has  grown  old  is  likely 
to  be  discarded  for  a  younger  woman ;  she  usually 
ends  her  days  in  bitterness.    The  father  also  is  rare- 
ly cared  for  by  the  children,  because  the  polygynous 
household  does  not  often  give  opportunity  for  close 
affection  between  parent  and  children.    Under  mo- 
nogamy parents  are  likely  to  receive  the  favoring 


124  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

care  of  children;  under  polygyny  they  are  often 
compelled  to  face  a  friendless  old  age. 

In  brief,  monogamy  presents  such  superior  op- 
portunities for  social  interaction  that  it  is  better 
fitted  than  any  other  type  of  marriage  to  produce 
the  most  unselfish  forms  of  love  and  to  lay  the  foun- 
dations for  the  best  forms  of  societary  life. 

2.  Present  Status  and  Tendencies  of  the  Family. 
Modern  industrial  processes  have  seriously  upset 
the  family  as  a  social  institution.  In  primitive 
groups  and  until  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth 
century  in  England  the  home  was  the  center  of  man- 
ufacture. The  use  of  steam-driven  machinery  was 
too  expensive  a  process  to  be  furthered  in  the  family 
circle.  The  workers  were  thus  called  out  of  the 
home  to  labor  in  places  where  machinery  had  been 
set  up,  that  is,  in  factories.  The  modern  family 
scarcely  manufactures  anything  at  all ;  even  the  im- 
mediate preparation  of  foods  is  likely  to  disappear 
from  the  home. 

This  removal  of  industries  from  the  home  has 
been  frought  with  danger.  Parents,  even  mothers, 
have  gone  out  of  the  home,  seeking  employment 
and  means  of  supporting  the  family.  The  employ- 
ment of  married  women  in  factories  has  brought 
about  the  isolation  and  neglect  of  children,  who 
have  roamed  the  streets,  acquiring  mischievous  hab- 
its and  falling  into  delinquency. 


THE   FAMILY  GROUP  125 

As  a  result,  much  has  been  said  recently  concern- 
ing pensions  for  mothers.  It  often  happens  that 
a  family  with  small  means  is  suddenly  left  in  the 
world  without  a  male  wage  earner.  The  husband 
and  father  suffers  death,  or  he  may  desert  the  fam- 
ily. He  may  have  no  savings  or  life  insurance,  and 
the  wife  and  mother  is  left  without  financial  re- 
sources. In  seeking  work  outside  the  home,  the 
mother  leaves  early  in  the  morning  and  returns  late 
at  night.  The  children  must  get  along  as  best  they 
may  without  supervision  except  such  as  the  older 
are  able  to  give.  They  are  sometimes  boarded  out, 
or  again  they  may  be  turned  over  to  an  orphans' 
home. 

The  idea  underlying  the  program  of  pensions  for 
mothers  is  that  of  furnishing  money  by  the  county, 
the  state,  or  both,  not  to  some  institution  to  take 
care  of  the  specific  children,  but  to  the  mother  her- 
self so  that  she  will  not  need  to  work  outside  the 
home.  In  this  way  the  mother  is  kept  in  her  home 
to  take  care  of  the  children,  and  the  family  as  far 
as  possible  is  kept  intact.  If  the  mother  is  uned- 
ucated, she  is  given  instruction  by  the  agents  of 
the  county  or  state.  There  are  numerous  possibili- 
ties of  taking  advantage  of  such  measures  for  in- 
dividual gain;  sometimes,  a  shiftless  father  is  en- 
couraged to  desert,  knowing  that  the  county  or  state 
will  look  after  the  family.  On  the  whole,  however, 
mothers'  pensions  if  carefully  administered  are  so- 


126  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

cially  wise. 

The  present  status  of  the  family,  particularly  in 
the  United  States,  is  unstable.  Never  were  so  many 
marriages  being  legally  dissolved  as  now.  For  many 
decades  the  United  States  has  held  the  unenviable 
position  of  leading  Europe  and  America  in  the  num- 
ber of  divorces  granted.  Several  years  ago  when  a 
survey  was  made,  it  was  found  that  there  were  20,- 
000  more  marriages  legally  dissolved  annually  in 
this  country  than  in  all  the  rest  of  the  Christian 
civilized  world  combined.  At  that  time  in  France 
one  marriage  was  legally  dissolved  to  every  thirty 
ceremonies  performed ;  in  Germany,  only  one  mar- 
riage was  legally  dissolved  to  every  forty-four  mar- 
riage ceremonies  performed ;  in  England,  only  one 
marriage  was  legally  dissolved  to  every  400  mar- 
riage ceremonies  performed;  but  in  the  United 
States  the  proportion  was  one  to  twelve,  and  in 
some  of  the  cities  the  proportion  was  even  one  to 
six  and  one  to  five. 

A  few  years  later  another  survey  was  made.  It 
showed  that  in  1916  there  were  six  counties 
in  five  states  of  the  United  States  which  had  more 
divorces  than  marriages.  In  Pawnee  County,  Okla- 
homa, the  ratio  was  one  divorce  to  every  .77  of  a 
marriage.  Washoe  County,  Nevada,  Trinity  Coun- 
ty, California,  Rutherford  County,  Tennessee,  Un- 
ion and  Clackamas  Counties,  Oregon,  were  the  oth- 
er communities  with  unenviable  records.  Seattle 


THE   FAMILY  GROUP  127 

outrivalled  Reno  as  a  divorce  center,  and  Atlanta 
and  Savannah  also  challenged  Reno's  record.  The 
entire  state  of  Nevada  showed  one  divorce  for  1.54 
marriages;  and  Indiana,  the  tenth  state  from  the 
top  of  the  list  of  divorce  rates  listed  one  divorce  to 
every  5.94  marriages. 

Not  only  does  the  United  States  lead  the  world 
in  the  number  of  legally  dissolved  marriages,  but 
this  dissolution  seems  to  be  increasing  much  more 
rapidly  than  the  population,  perhaps  three  times  as 
rapidly.  If  this  tendency  is  maintained,  it  will  not 
be  many  decades  before  the  family  as  a  permanent 
union  between  husband  and  wife  will  no  longer  be 
common.  If  the  United  States  should  reach  the 
place  where  one-half  of  all  marriages  are  dissolved 
in  the  courts,  the  social  conditions  of  such  a  time 
will  probably  be  no  better  than  those  in  the  declin- 
ing days  of  Rome. 

It  appears  that  the  rate  at  which  marriages  are 
legally  dissolved  is  higher  as  a  rule  in  the  cities 
than  in  the  surrounding  country  districts.  The  rate 
is  apparently  from  two  to  four  times  as  high  among 
childless  couples  as  among  those  who  have  children. 
Parental  duties  and  privileges  are  strong  factors  in 
preventing  a  break  in  the  marriage  relation. 

It  also  appears  that  legally  dissolved  marriages 
are  relatively  most  frequent  among  persons  of  no 
religious  profession,  next  most  common  among 
Protestants,  next  among  Jews,  and  least  common 


128  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

among  Catholics.  The  fact  that  some  marriages 
are  not  dissolved  is  not  necessarily  proof,  however, 
that  they  should  not  be  dissolved,  and  that  vicious 
family  conditions  do  not  exist.  The  rate  at  which 
marriages  are  dissolved  by  law  is  much  higher  in 
the  United  States,  among  native  whites  than  among 
immigrants — a  fact  partly  due  to  the  traditional  at- 
titudes and  the  religious  control  by  which  many  im- 
migrants are  governed. 

Of  all  the  marriages  dissolved  by  the  courts  in 
the  United  States  within  recent  decades,  approxi- 
mately two-thirds  have  been  broken  at  the  request 
of  the  wife.  This  indicates  that  women  are  becom- 
ing emancipated ;  they  are  not  submitting  to  abuses 
on  the  part  of  their  husbands  as  they  did  formerly. 
Another  conclusion  is  that  men  are  the  cause  for 
breaking  the  marriage  bond  more  frequently  than 
are  women. 

The  grounds  that  are  given  in  the  courts  for  dis- 
solving the  marriage  bond  in  the  United  States  are 
numerous,  such  as  cruelty,  sexual  immorality, 
and  neglect  on  the  part  of  the  husband  to  provide 
for  the  family.  In  perhaps  two-thirds  of  the  cases, 
the  marriage  bond  had  been  dissolved  in  spirit  be- 
fore the  courts  made  the  dissolution  formal. 

To  an  appreciable  extent,  the  legal  breaking  up  of 
families  is  a  symptom  of  more  serious  evils.  Mar- 
riage itself  is  being  taken  with  an  increasing  lack 
of  seriousness ;  it  is  losing  its  religious  sanction  and 


THE   FAMILY  GROUP  129 

being  treated  as  any  ordinary  promise.  In  certain 
classes  of  society,  the  wealthiest  and  the  poorest, 
there  is  a  noticeable  decay  of  the  very  virtues  upon 
which  the  family  rests.  Family  life  requires  self- 
sacrifice,  chastity,  and  the  assumption  of  responsi- 
bility for  the  welfare  of  other  individuals. 

The  causes  of  the  instability  of  the  family  par- 
ticularly in  Western  civilization  may  now  be  sum- 
marized. (1)  The  first  of  the  causes  that  may  be 
cited  is  the  decay  of  the  religious  view  of  marriage 
and  the  family.  It  is  historically  true  that  no  stable 
life  has  existed  anywhere  without  a  religious  basis, 
but  within  recent  years  in  the  United  States,  for 
example,  religious  sentiments,  beliefs,  ideals,  and 
attitudes,  have  become  increasingly  disassociated 
from  marriage  and  the  family.  Consequently  many 
people  unfortunately  have  come  to  regard  the  in- 
stitutions of  marriage  and  the  family  largely  as  a 
matter  of  personal  convenience. 

(2)  The  second  leading  cause  of  the  increasing 
instability  of  the  family  may  be  given  as  the  exag- 
gerated spirit  of  individualism  and  self  satisfaction. 
This  spirit  leads  a  person  to  find  the  guide  to  his 
actions  in  his  own  wishes,  whims,  or  caprices;  it 
gives  him  an  attitude  of  carelessness  concerning  so- 
cial welfare.  This  spirit  has  expressed  itself  in  the 
phrase,  I  should  worry ;  it  has  tended  to  make  all 
the  social  institutions  unstable,  especially  the  fam- 
ily, for  the  family  rests  upon  attitudes  of  group  re- 


130  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

sponsibility. 

(3)  The  emancipation  of  woman  has  sometimes 
increased  family  instability.    The  emancipation  of 
woman  in  the  sense  of  freeing  her  from  the  hin- 
drances to  the  best  and  noblest  development  of  her 
personality  is  entirely  desirable,  but  this  freedom 
has  meant  some  opportunities  for  going  down  as 
well  as  many  for  going  up.    To  some  women  it  has 
meant  license,  or  licentiousness. 

The  Roman  women,  it  may  be  remembered, 
achieved  complete  emancipation;  but  that  victory 
did  not  lead  to  Roman  progress.  On  the  contrary, 
the  emancipation  of  woman  in  Rome  led  to  her  deg- 
radation, and  to  the  demoralization  of  Roman 
family  life.  This  result  of  course  is  not  necessarily 
an  accompaniment  of  woman's  emancipation ;  it  de- 
pends in  part  upon  woman's  underlying  attitude  in 
the  matter  and  upon  the  spirit  of  the  times.  That 
the  woman's  movement  has  played  a  part  in  the  in- 
creasing instability  of  the  modern  family  is  shown 
by  the  fact  that  some  of  the  influential  leaders  in 
that  movement  advocated  free  divorce,  which  may 
be  cited  as  a  causal  factor  in  the  rise  of  a  careless 
attitude  toward  marriage. 

(4)  The  growth  of  modern  industrialism  is  an- 
other cause  of  the  instability  of  the  family.    The 
opening  of  a  large  number  of  new  industrial  occu- 
pations to  woman  has  rendered  her  to  a  degree  eco- 
nomically   independent    of    family    relationships. 


THE   FAMILY  GROUP  131 

Furthermore,  this  development  has  tended  to  take 
many  married  women  out  of  the  home  and  into  the 
factory.  The  result  has  been  harmful  to  the  home ; 
too  many  homes  are  simply  lodging  places. 

Through  the  development  of  opportunities  to 
work  in  factories  and  stores,  and  increased  social 
interaction,  many  girls  have  failed  to  learn  the  do- 
mestic arts,  and  to  receive  training  in  home-mak- 
ing. Therefore,  when  they  have  come  to  the  posi- 
tion of  wife  and  mother  they  have  frequently  been 
totally  unfitted.  Through  their  lack  of  knowledge 
of,  and  of  interest  in,  home-making,  they  have  made 
home  life  unstable. 

(5)  The  proportion  of  American  families  that 
are  giving  up  their  homes   for  "the   cheerless   ex- 
istence in  a  boarding  house  or  hotel''  is  a  disturbing 
fact.    What  does  it  mean,  that  a  rapidly  increasing 
part  of  the  population  finds  the  boarding  house  pref- 
erable to  the  home?     It  may  be  that  the  burden 
of  housekeeping  is  becoming  too  heavy  to  compen- 
sate for  the  possession  of  a  home.    It  may  be  asked, 
however,  what  is  to  compensate  for  the  giving  up  of 
the  home  and  home  life  by  that  increasing  host  of 
young  married  people  who  are  choosing  a  homeless 
boarding  house  existence. 

(6)  The  growth  of  tenement  districts    and   the 
rise  in  land  rents  have  operated  against  sound  fami- 
ly life.    It  has  been  frequently  declared  that  a  nor- 
mal home  can  scarcely  exist  in  many  of  the  tene- 


132  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

merit  habitations  of  the  large  cities.  Where  a  fam- 
ily of  three  or  four  members,  with  perhaps  a  male 
lodger,  live  in  a  one-room  habitation,  a  normal 
family  life  is  impossible;  the  social  interaction 
tends  to  lower  moral  standards. 

(7)  To  the  other  extreme  is  the  fact  that  the 
high  social  standards  of  living  required  in  certain 
sections  of  the  large  cities  are  a  cause  of  family  in- 
stability.   Many  persons  maintain  luxurious  stand- 
ards of  living  in  order  to  gain  prestige  in  the  groups 
in  which  they    have    their    associates,    but   these 
standards  often  are  out  of  proportion  to  incomes. 
The  maintenance  of  a  home  where  standards  of 
living  are  rising  faster  than  incomes  is  often  a  cause 
of  serious  domestic  unhappiness. 

(8)  A  late  age  of  marriage  is  sometimes  another 
causal  factor.    In  the  professions  it  is  hardly  wise 
for  a  young  man  to  marry  much  earlier  than  the 
thirties ;  at  any  rate  an  independent  income  in  the 
professions  is  possible  not  much  earlier  than  the 
age  of  thirty.    The  high  economic  standard  of  liv- 
ing which  a  young  woman  of  wealthy  parents  may 
set  before  a  young  man  who  is  getting  started  in  a 
profession,  leads  to  the  postponement  of  marriage. 
People  who  marry  after  thirty  sometimes  find  dif- 
ficulty in  becoming  adjusted  to  each  other's  habits ; 
the  maladjustments  may  lead  to  unstable  marriage 
relationships. 


THE  FAMILY  GROUP  133 

(9)  An  increasing  degree  of  knowledge  of  the 
laws  regarding  divorce  and  an  increasing  laxity  of 
these  laws  have  produced  family  instability.    A  few 
centuries  ago  the  law  was  rarely  resorted  to  except 
by  the  wealthy  classes.     Many  people  would  not 
have  thought  of  divorce  even  fifty  years  ago ;  similar 
people  today  know  the    laws    concerning    divorce 
and  sometimes  deliberately  prepare  to  secure  it. 

The  laws  concerning  the  legal  dissolution  of  mar- 
riage are  more  lax  in  the  United  States  than  in 
almost  any  other  Christian  nation.  The  adminis- 
tration of  these  laws  is  also  lax;  their  lack  of  uni- 
formity is  unfortunate.  Although  the  people  of 
Canada  and  of  England  are  similar  in  culture  and 
institutions  to  the  people  of  the  United  States, 
their  divorce  rate  is  very  low,  a  situation  which  is 
partly  explained  by  the  fact  that  the  Canadian  and 
English  laws  are  comparatively  strict.  An  easy  way 
out  of  marriage  is  one  of  the  causes  of  bad  mar- 
riages. 

(10)  Poor  marriages  are  perhaps  the  chief  cause 
of  divorces.    It  was  this  discovery  which  Dr.  George 
Elliott  Howard  was  the  first  to  make.    Many  per- 
sons assume  that  marriage  is  not  a  serious  affair. 
If  they  make  hasty  choices  that  result  in  unhappi- 
ness,  they  appeal  to  the  divorce  law.    Marriage  on 
short  acquaintance  too  often  proves  a  delusion.    If 
given  a  reasonable  amount  of  time,  what  is  thought 
to  be  real  affection  would  prove  to  be  a  passing 


134  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

fancy  or  sex  passion.  The  marriage  of  a  chaste 
woman  with  a  sexually  immoral  or  diseased  "gen- 
tleman" causes  family  instability.  A  requirement 
that  a  marriage  license  must  be  secured  several  days 
before  the  marriage  occurs  would  be  socially  ad- 
vantageous. 

Lax  marriage  laws  rest  upon  a  lax  public  opin- 
ion in  regard  to  the  need  of  a  more  stable  family 
life.  More  knowledge  about  the  means  of  securing 
family  stability,  together  with  a  wide  distribution 
of  this  knowledge  would  produce  more  wholesome 
attitudes. 

The  instability  of  the  modern  family  may  go 
from  bad  to  worse  until  a  nation  such  as  the  United  , 
States  destroys  itself,  even  as  Rome  decayed ;  or  it 
may  be  met  by  a  new  constructive  and  socialized 
attitude  on  the  part  of  individuals  and  of  or- 
ganized groups.  The  outcome  may  depend  en- 
tirely upon  the  attitude  toward  marriage  and  the 
family  that  individuals  and  groups  choose  to  en- 
courage. The  destruction  or  reconstruction  of  the 
family  is  within  human  choice. 


THE  FAMILY  GROUP         135 

PROBLEMS 

1.  Define  a  good  husband. 

2.  Explain  the  statement  that  woman   has  domesticated 

man. 

3.  Explain:  "No  one  marries  the  real  man." 

4.  Why  is  a  marriage  taken  by  many  people  with  a  lack  of 

seriousness? 

5.  What  is  feminism? 

6.  In  what  ways  is  home  life  in  the  country  better  than  in 

the  city? 

7.  Show  how  "table  talk"  has  an  educational  value. 

8.  What  are  the  effects  upon  home  life  of  moving  every 

year? 

9.  Should  every  girl  learn  to  cook? 

10.  Should  every  girl  learn  home-making  before  she  goes 

to  work  in  a  factory  or  store? 

11.  Which  are  the  greater,  the  advantages  or  the  disadvan- 

tages of  being  an  only  child? 

12.  Explain  the  statement  that  the  rich  man's  wife  is  often 

a  parasite? 

13.  "Is  the  attitude  of  the  public  the    same    toward    the 

man    who  has  married  money,  as  toward  the  man 
who  has  made  money"? 

14.  Should  every  young  woman  have  a  profession?  Why? 

15.  Are  women  inherently  better  than  men? 

16.  Should  women  become  more  masculine? 

17.  What  are  the  different  types  of  marriages? 

18.  What  is  the  social  function  of  an  "engagement"  period 

before  marriage? 

19.  Should  wealthy  women  resent  being  forced  "to  spend 

their  time  in  the  meaningless  round  of  luncheons,  teas, 
bridge-parties,   and   stereotyped   charities?" 

20.  How  far  does  the  welfare  of  society  rest  on  the  welfare 

of  the  home? 


CHAPTER  VII 

THE  FAMILY  GROUP 

(Continued) 

3.  HOUSING  THE  FAMILY.  Housing  conditions 
exercise  a  degree  of  control  over  family  life.  Un- 
derhousing,  especially,  hinders  the  maintenance  of 
normal  moral  conditions  in  the  home,  besides  weak- 
ening the  physical  morale. 

The  earliest  family  groups  were  very  crudely 
housed.  Cave  houses  and  tree  houses  prevailed. 
The  invention  of  the  hall  house,  rectangular  in 
shape,  containing  one  room  with  the  fireplace  in 
the  center,  with  no  windows  and  perhaps  no  chim- 
ney, and  accommodating  more  than  one  family 
represented  a  distinct  advance.  Today  the  variety 
of  houses  is  indeterminable;  the  elegance  of  some 
is  the  best  that  wealth  and  artistic  talent  can  devise. 
The  owners  however  of  colonial  mansions,  Califor- 
nia bungalows,  or  Swiss  chalets  are  often  unmind- 
ful of  the  fact  that  for  many  laboring  people  modest 
homes  of  their  own  are  impossibilities. 

When  sixty  per  cent  of  the  people  of  a  prosperous 
country  such  as  the  United  States,  with  its  three 
million  square  miles  of  land,  are  unable  to  own 
their  own  homes,  and  when  they  live  their  entire 


THE   FAMILY  GROUP  137 

days  on  other  people's  land,  a  social  situation  has 
developed  that  demands  earnest  attention.  With 
land  in  certain  congested  parts  of  the  largest  cities 
selling  at  a  thousand  dollars  a  front  foot,  with  tene- 
ments rearing  their  sooty  heads  a  hundred  feet  high, 
with  a  housing  shortage  so  constant  and  acute  that 
no  matter  how  dilapidated  a  building  may  be,  some 
one  is  willing  to  live  in  it,  is  it  not  time  that  hous- 
ing the  family  should  be  considered  a  problem  of 
national  and  world  welfare? 

The  housing  problem  develops  when  more  than 
one  family  group  try  to  live  in  a  dwelling  scarcely 
large  enough  for  a  single  family.  Each  city  in  the 
United  States  has  its  housing  problem,  namely, 
how  shall  it  house  its  people  from  a  healthy  and  so- 
cial viewpoint?  Although  New  York  City  alone 
in  the  United  States  has  a  tenement  house  problem, 
all  other  large  cities  are  tending  toward  tenement 
house  conditions. 

Housing  the  family  is  a  serious  problem  for  an 
increasing  percentage  of  the  world's  population; 
housing  evils  are  everywhere  developing.  (1)  Over- 
crowding is  of  two  types,  land  overcrowding  and 
room  overcrowding.  The  first  mentioned  refers  to 
the  overcrowding  of  limited  areas  of  land  with  an 
undue  population,  in  such  a  way  that  a  fair  level  of 
living  standards  cannot  be  maintained.  Under 
specific  circumstances  a  thousand  people  might 
be  housed  satisfactorily,  as  in  an  elegant  hotel; 


138  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

whereas  under  other  conditions  two  hundred  people 
might  be  housed  unhealthily  upon  the  same  area  of 
land,  especially  they  who  live  in  shacks  without 
sanitary  control. 

Room  overcrowding  refers  to  a  situation  where 
too  many  persons  are  occupying  a  given  number  of 
rooms,  especially  sleeping  rooms.  In  many  cities 
the  standard  is  a  minimum  amount  of  400  or  500 
cubic  feet  of  air  for  each  adult  per  room.  Such  a 
standard  may  be  entirely  inadequate,  for  ventilation 
is  more  important  than  the  amount  of  air  space. 
It  is  also  important  that  sunshine  and  light  reach 
into  every  living  room,  particularly  sleeping  rooms. 
It  is  far  better  to  permit  a  family  to  sleep  in  a  room 
containing  only  400  cubic  feet  of  air  per  adult,  of 
good  quality  and  frequently  renewed,  than  to  per- 
mit them  to  sleep  in  a  room  containing  three  times 
that  amount  of  air  which  cannot  be  renewed 
through  ventilation. 

(2)  Closely  related  to  overcrowding  is  the  lack  of 
health  facilities.  In  addition  to  ventilation,  sun- 
shine, and  light,  the  necessary  health  facilities  in- 
clude adequate  plumbing  with  preferably  separated 
facilities  for  each  family,  proper  collection  of  gar- 
bage, and  fixed  responsibility  for  the  cleanliness  of 
those  parts  of  the  building  which  are  used  in  com- 
mon by  several  families. 

It  is  surprising  how  anyone  who  breathes  con- 
tinually the  foul  air  of  the  tenement  can  keep 


THE   FAMILY  GROUP  139 

healthy.  In  the  "dark,  damp  rooms"of  the  poor, 
the  germs  of  disease  live  and  multiply;  sunshine 
and  fresh  air  are  not  there  to  destroy  them.  Ty- 
phoid and  other  fevers  are  prevalent  because  of  an 
impure  water  supply  and  a  lack  of  drainage.  The 
highest  death  rate  from  tuberculosis  is  generally 
found  where  the  proportion  of  overcrowded  hous- 
ing conditions  is  highest. 

(3)  High  rent  constitutes  another  housing  evil. 
It  is  caused  in  part  by  an  extraordinary  demand  for 
houses.    As  a  result,  people  huddle  together  in  in- 
creasingly close  and  mean  quarters.    With  every  in- 
crease in  a  city's  population  either  by  birth  or  im- 
migration, the  demand  for  housing  space  rises  and 
the  rents  go  up. 

(4)  The  misuse  of  the  principle  of  the  private 
ownership  of  land  causes  unduly  high  rents  and 
housing  evils.     Land  speculation    tends    to    force 
land  prices  up  and   to   make   housing    conditions 
harsher  for  the  poor.     Housing    speculation    also 
produces  disastrous  results,  for  many  dwellings  are 
"built  to  sell,  not  to  house." 

Prices  have  already  reached  the  level  in  large 
cities  where  it  is  impossible  for  the  poorer  people 
to  own  their  own  homes,  no  matter  how  thrifty  and 
industrious  they  may  be.  With  land  selling  at  a 
hundred  or  a  thousand  dollars  or  more  a  front  foot, 
and  being  occupied  with  four  story  or  ten  or  twelve 
story  tenements,  the  poor  man  cannot  hope  to  own 


140  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

a  home.  Good  farm  land  in  the  United  States  is 
also  reaching  a  price  level  which  a  young  man  with 
only  slight  financial  means  and  with  a  family  can- 
not pay  for.  This  increasing  degree  of  tenancy  and 
renting  is  a  main  cause  of  the  marked  social  rest- 
lessness of  the  time.  More  than  95  per  cent  of  the 
people  in  the  tenement  districts  of  New  York  City 
are  living  in  hired  habitations ;  other  millions,  par- 
ticularly of  the  industrial  classes,  are  homeless  in 
the  sense  of  being  renters  and  tenants,  in  fact  over 
sixty  per  cent  of  the  entire  population  of  the  United 
States  are  so  situated. 

(5)  The  taking  in  of  lodgers  is  usually  found 
along  with  high  rents  and  overcrowding.  With  an  in- 
crease in  land  values  and  in  rent,  a  lodger  may  be 
added  to  the  family  group,  so  that  the  increased 
housing  expense  may  be  met.    The  moral  effects  of 
taking  in  lodgers  by  families  already  living  in  one 
or  two  rooms  are  serious. 

(6)  Lack  of  play  space  is  the  rule  where  habita- 
tions are   congested.     Hallways,    dark    stairways, 
side-alleys,  and  rear-alleys    are    the    only    places 
about  the  home  where  millions  of  children  may 
play.     (7)  The  tendencies  to  vice  and  crime  which 
accompany  overcrowding,  the  lodger  evil,  and  the 
lack  of  play  space  are  many.    Dark  alleys  and  pro- 
miscuous living  conditions  tend  to  degrade  children 
and  adults  alike. 

(8)   In  cities  people  are  rated  socially  according 


THE   FAMILY  GROUP  141 

to  the  topographical  location  of  their  homes.  Those 
who  do  the  manual  work  generally  occupy  the  low- 
est geographical  levels.  The  heights  and  the  com- 
manding spots  are  occupied  by  the  people  with 
wealth,  irrespective  of  their  services  to  the  given 
city.  Between  these  extremes  the  middle  classer 
live.  An  American  novelist  has  made  much  of  the 
point  that  one's  social  rating  depends  in  part  upon 
the  altitude  in  a  city  at  which  he  is  able  to  house 
his  family.  As  he  acquires  a  large  competence,  he 
moves  up  geographically  and  refuses  to  live  down 
geographically. 

The  causes  of  housing  evils  are  frequently  classed 
as  three-fold.  One  of  the  leading  causal  factors  of 
the  housing  problem  is  the  failure  of  the  citizens 
of  a  community  to  recognize  housing  evils  as  they 
arise.  The  ignorance  of  many  persons  in  cities  re- 
garding the  housing  conditions  that  are  developing 
within  the  city's  gates  is  surprising.  This  situation 
illustrates  the  general  lack  of  social  knowledge. 
Furthermore,  when  bad  housing  conditions  are  rec- 
ognized as  arising  within  a  community,  the  failure 
of  the  citizens  to  take  an  effective  interest  in  recti- 
fying the  untoward  situation  is  a  startling  commen- 
tary on  prevailing  social  attitudes. 

A  second  leading  cause  of  poor  housing,  as  shown 
pointedly  by  Lawrence  Veiller,  is  greed  on  the  part 
of  landlords.  For  the  sake  of  large  profits  on  their 
investments,  many  landlords  are  willing  to  sacrifice 


142  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

the  health  and  welfare  of  relatively  helpless  people. 
Many  make  no  repairs  except  under  compulsion, 
and  care  little  whether  tenants  live  or  die,  so  long 
as  large  financial  returns  are  netted  from  property. 

A  third  leading  cause  of  poor  housing  is  ignorance 
on  the  part  of  poor  people — ignorance  concerning 
the  nature  of  health,  sanitation,  and  minimum 
living  standards.  From  one-sixth  to  one-half  the 
populations  of  large  cities  have  never  had  the  op- 
portunity of  learning  about  the  recent  advances 
in  sanitary  science,  household  economics,  and  per- 
sonal hygiene;  they  are  practically  excluded  from 
all  these  benefits.  There  are  whole  sections  of 
large  urban  populations  which,  as  regards  the  prev- 
alence of  ill  health  and  disease,  and  their  ignorance 
of  the  laws  of  health  and  sanitation,  are  still  living 
in  the  Dark  Ages. 

At  least  eight  different  methods  of  controlling 
the  housing  of  the  family  may  be  noted.  (1)  A 
laissez  faire  reliance  on  private  capital  and  on  the 
law  of  supply  and  demand  for  houses  encourages 
private  building  initiative  but  does  not  conserve 
the  needs  of  families  for  well-built  homes  and  does 
not  prevent  speculation  in  a  necessity  of  life.  (2) 
The  building  of  model  tenements  by  individuals 
sets  a  fine  example,  but  does  not  provide  adequate 
housing  for  more  than  a  fraction  of  those  needing 
homes.  (3)  Municipally  owned  and  operated  ten- 
ements have  been  a  success  in  Germany  and  Great 


THE   FAMILY  GROUP  143 

Britain.  Their  feasibility  on  a  large  scale  in  the 
United  States  is  doubtful,  because  municipal  gov- 
ernments are  subject  to  inefficiency  and  "politics." 
(4)  The  establishment  of  garden  cities  is  praise- 
worthy, but  meets  the  needs  of  only  a  limited  per- 
centage of  city  people. 

(5)  Better  sanitary  and  health  measures  for  reg- 
ulating the  activities  of  private  builders  are  neces- 
sary, but  they  do  not  hinder  rents  from  rising,  and 
overcrowding  from  becoming  common.  (6)  If  not 
carried  too  far,  the  reduction  of  taxes  on  houses  and 
improvements  and  an  increase  of  taxes  on  land  in 
cities,  graduated  according  to  the  unearned  incre- 
ment serves  to  make  possible  better  housing  con- 
ditions. (7)  Rapid  transportation  at  low  rates  gives 
the  working  classes  a  chance  to  house  themselves 
well.  Many  people  however  prefer  to  live  near  their 
work.  Rapid  transit  moreover  affords  only  tempo- 
rary relief  unless  terminals  are  continually  exten- 
ded, and  people  are  encouraged  to  move  farther  and 
farther  away  from  their  work. 

(8)  Constant,  persistent  education  of  the  public 
concerning  housing  conditions  is  essential.  In  or- 
der to  secure  adequate  housing  laws  and  proper 
administration  of  them,  public  opinion  must  give 
steady  support  to  socially-minded  legislators  and 
administrators. 

It  was  Ruskin  who  pointed  out  that  in  6000  years 
of  building  houses,  we  have  not  yet  learned  how  to 


144  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

house  all  human  families.  If  the  chief  end  of  life 
is  to  live  helpfully,  then  it  is  a  matter  of  prime  im- 
portance that  all  the  people  live  in  houses  which 
are  conducive  to  health,  safety,  and  morality.  Ade- 
quate housing  is  so  related  to  proper  homing  that 
it  becomes  a  matter  too  socially  vital  to  be  left  in 
the  field  of  selfish  speculation;  it  can  be  handled 
well  only  through  socialized  control. 

4.  Socializing  the  Family.  The  family  in  West- 
ern civilization  is  undoubtedly  at  present  in  a  tran- 
sitional stage.  The  patriarchal  family  once  pre- 
vailed widely ;  it  was  good  for  its  day  and  age.  In 
recent  decades  the  development  of  democratic  ideas 
has  produced  a  movement  for  socializing  the  family. 
The  patriarchal  family  made  the  husband  and  fa- 
ther the  authority,  and  the  wife  and  the  mother  a 
subordinate;  the  new  movement  would  divide  the 
authority  between  husband  and  wife,  and  establish 
a  richer  type  of  co-operation. 

To  change  the  family  from  one  in  which  the  hus- 
band exercises  full  control  to  a  democratic  type  in 
which  husband  and  wife  share  the  authority  more 
or  less  equally  is  a  difficult  task;  the  processes  of 
nature  cannot  be  modified  rapidly.  In  many  family 
groups,  a  socialized  control  has  been  established; 
but  in  most  families  in  Western  civilization  the 
spirit  of  domestic  democracy  has  not  been  recog- 
nized or  else  it  is  being  tried,  resulting  in  varying 
degrees  of  co-operation.  The  new  family  is  a  group 


THE   FAMILY  GROUP  145 

whose  life  is  based  not  primarily  on  the  fear  and 
force  of  authority,  but  on  the  drawing  power  of 
mutual  respect  and  affection ;  it  is  one  in  which  love 
alone  controls. 

In  a  transition  from  the  autocratic  family  group 
to  the  new  socialized  type,  there  must  result  neces- 
sarily much  confusion  and  instability.  Whenever 
old  habits  are  being  replaced  by  new  ones  in  the 
life  of  the  individual,  a  period  of  instability  occurs ; 
thus  it  is  also  with  group  life.  Hence  the  present 
instability  of  the  family  should  not  be  viewed  too 
depressingly ;  it  need  not  last  unduly  long  if  every- 
one will  put  forth  effort  and  exercise  foresight  to- 
ward the  working  out  of  a  democratic  family  life. 

Such  a  family  type  must  be  controlled  by  chastity 
and  a  single  and  the  same  standard  of  morals  for 
both  men  and  women.  Sex  purity  is  essential  to  a 
true  democracy  in  the  family.  The  discussion  of 
sex  morality  has  been  a  much  avoided  subject.  It 
has  been  tabooed  by  parents  usually  through  prud- 
ish considerations.  It  has  been  ignored  by  the 
school,  an  institution  from  which  the  child  should 
receive  the  instruction  which  will  best  fit  him  for 
wise  living.  It  has  been  neglected  by  the  church, 
which  has  stood  for  public  and  private  morality.  It 
has  had  an, open  field  chiefly  among  the  gamins  of 
the  street,  and  hired  men  on  farms. 

Illegal  or  immoral  relations  between  the  sexes 
have  existed  in  all  ages.  The  difficulties  in  the  way 


146  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

of  socially  controlling  the  sex  instinct  have  been 
and  are  almost  insurmountable.  When  uncon- 
trolled the  sex  instinct  produces  sterile  and  diseased 
men  and  women,  preventing  a  normal  family  life 
altogether.  It  has  taken  thousands  of  girls  and 
women  annually  as  a  sacrifice  in  the  United  States 
alone.  The  virtues  and  bodies  of  girls  and  women 
have  been  highly  commercialized,  annually  return- 
ing to  evil-minded  procurers  and  managers,  even  in 
the  United  States,  millions  of  dollars.  The  segrega- 
tion of  sexually  depraved  girls  and  women  in  dis- 
tricts has  been  and  is  a  flaring  blotch  upon  civiliza- 
tion, testifying  that  men  and  women  have  sunk 
lower  in  the  control  of  their  passions  than  swine. 

Sex  immorality  leads  to  serious  diseases,  namely, 
venereal  diseases,  so  subtle  in  their  processes  that 
years  after  they  have  been  pronounced  cured  by 
competent  physicians  they  may  break  forth,  con- 
taminating virtuous  wives  and  helpless  babes.  The 
busiest  specialty  of  medicine  is  that  concerned  with 
venereal  diseases.  Disabilities,  suffering,  surgical 
operations,  premature  death  follow  in  the  wake  of 
these  diseases,  as  they  populate  hospitals  and  asy- 
lums with  human  wrecks.  Perhaps  the  most  re- 
volting phase  of  these  deep-seated  infections  is  the 
way  in  which  many  men  having  sown  "wild  oats" 
in  pre-marriage  days  are  guilty  of  transmitting  a 
dangerous  venereal  disease  to  innocent  wives. 

Ten  causes  of  unchastity,  a  leading  enemy  of  a 


THE   FAMILY  GROUP  147 

socialized  family,  will  be  noted.  (1)  The  love  of 
mammon  is  perhaps  the  chief  cause ;  financial  gain 
is  placed  ahead  of  family  ideals.  (2)  Masculine 
selfishness  and  uncontrolled  sex  desire  rank  a  close 
second  as  causal  factors.  (3)  The  habit  of  some  girls 
and  women  of  excusing  their  brothers  or  sons  in 
being  a  little  "wild"  is  another  leading  cause.  (4) 
Feminine  weakness  for  male  adulation  and  flattery, 
for  the  luxuries  which  some  men  use  to  delude 
women,  and  feminine  looseness  of  morals  are  de- 
termining factors.  (5)  Closely  packed  populations 
in  congested  urban  districts  furnish  breeding  places 
for  sex  immorality.  (6)  The  countenancing  of  a 
double  standard  of  morals  operates  disastrously 
against  the  family.  A  woman"who  succombs  once 
illegally  to  her  sex  nature  becomes  a  social  outcast ; 
but  a  man  who  habitually  violates  sex  virtues  and 
whose  evil  practices  are  known,  may  remain  a  so- 
cial lion  and  be  received  with  open  arms  in  polite 
society.  For  this  social  situation  women  may  be 
more  too  blame  than  men.  (7)  Some  men  and 
many  women  owe  their  initial  sex  debauch  to  the 
influence  of  the  unregulated  public  dance  hall  and 
of  alcoholic  liquor.  (8)  A  double  standard  of  med- 
ical regulations  is  also  a  cause.  At  present,  cases  of 
smallpox  must  be  reported  to  the  health  department 
but  venereal  diseases  which  follow  sex  immorality 
and  which  are  as  virulent  as  smallpox  and  far  more 
widespread,  must  not  be  reported  to  the  public 


148  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

health  authorities,  and  furthermore,  public  meas- 
ures cannot  be  taken  to  prevent  their  spread  to  the 
innocent.  (9)  Poverty  leads  many  a  girl  to  her  sex 
downfall.  She  is  enticed  by  the  lure  of  expensive 
clothes  which  her  wages  cannot  buy,  and  gives  in  to 
a  quick  but  demoralizing  means  of  securing  the  lure. 
(10)  A  lack  of  adequate  moral  and  religious  char- 
acter is  perhaps  fundamental  to  nearly  all  cases  of 
sex  depravity. 

A  socialized  family  rests  on  the  principle  of  mu- 
tual self  sacrifice.  A  sound  ethics  is  believed  by 
many  persons  to  be  sufficient  for  the  maintenance 
of  domestic  democracy;  other  persons  hold  that  a 
rational  religious  view,  particularly  such  as  is  rep- 
resented by  Christianity  in  its  socialized  interpre- 
tations, is  more  closely  in  harmony  with  the  prin- 
ciples of  self  sacrifice  upon  which  the  socialized 
family  must  rest  than  any  other  force  in  the  world. 

A  socialized  family  life  is  also  a  vital  factor  in 
true  religion.  If  a  child  grows  up  without  receiving 
any  religious  training  in  the  family  he  is  not  likely 
to  develop  a  deep  and  abiding  religious  attitude. 
The  family  undoubtedly  gave  Christianity  its  con- 
cept of  human  brotherhood,  derived  from  the  part 
that  is  played  by  the  brother  in  a  well  directed 
home.  It  is  also  probable  that  the  religious  idea 
of  a  Divine  Fatherhood  did  not  develop  until  after 
the  family  had  put  a  meaning  of  genuine  love  into 
the  term,  father. 


THE   FAMILY  GROUP  149 

The  socialized  family  rests  upon  wise  marriages. 
If  there  were  democratic  marriage  ideals,  includ- 
ing heredity,  health,  moral,  and  religious  standards 
of  the  highest  order,  openly  proclaimed  and  prac- 
ticed, the  family  would  be  safe.  These  ideals  should 
not  favor  the  marriage  of  persons  of  too  great  differ- 
ence in  age,  of  too  wide  a  racial  difference,  of  per- 
sons with  venereal  diseases,  or  who  are  mentally 
defective.  The  requirement  that  a  certain  length  of 
time  should  elapse  between  the  securing  of  the  li- 
cense and  the  marriage,  and  the  law  requiring  that 
a  health  certificate  be  obtained  before  marriage  are 
intended  to  protect  society  from  ill-planned  and 
hasty  marriages. 

Legislation  alone,  however,  cannot  go  far  in  so- 
cializing the  family.  If  the  family  is  hampered  by 
wrong  attitudes  toward  it,  then  legislation  cannot 
set  matters  right.  The  public  should  learn  in  what 
ways  the  family  is  a  socially  necessary  institution, 
and  hence  is  socially  sacred.  Marriage  needs  to  be 
viewed  not  as  an  expression  of  a  narrowly  selfish 
love;  and  the  family  not  as  a  temporary  group  ar- 
rangement. 

Socializing  the  family  is  an  educational  process. 
It  is  in  the  home  itself  that  individuals  can  acquire 
early  and  effectively  the  attitude  that  marriage  and 
the  family  are  superior  institutions.  It  is  here  that 
the  responsibilities  and  opportunities  of  fatherhood 
can  best  be  taught.  Girls,  and  boys  also,  can  learn 


150  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

here  too  that  motherhood  represents  the  most  im- 
portant social  service  which  a  woman  can  perform. 

The  family  was  the  first  human  school ;  it  is  also 
the  best  school.  The  most  effective  teaching  is  be- 
ing done  in  and  through  the  family.  The  education 
of  every  person  normally  begins  in  the  family ;  the 
child's  most  important  educative  period  is  spent  in 
the  home.  The  education  of  the  child  in  the  prin- 
ciples of  health  and  sex  hygiene  can  usually  be  given 
best  in  the  home.  There  is  no  better  place  than 
the  home  in  which  a  child  may  learn  obedience, 
discipline,  and  other  social  concepts.  The  family 
group  life  has  magnificent  opportunities  in  the  field 
of  moral  training.  The  family  may  easily  become 
the  greatest  socializing  institution  in  the  world. 

The  main  function  of  the  family  is  to  train  chil- 
dren to  become  worthy  parents,  neighbors,  and  citi- 
zens. After  thousands  of  years  of  human  history 
nothing  superior  to  or  as  good  as  the  family  has 
developed  for  the  training  of  children.  Marriage 
and  the  family  determine  the  heredity  of  nearly  all 
children;  they  also  exercise  control  over  the  care 
and  upbringing  of  the  rising  generation.  Although 
it  may  be  built  of  logs  and  characterized  by  humble 
circumstances,  the  home  may  still  function  as  the 
great  schoolroom  of  the  human  race. 

Century  after  century  the  family  has  survived. 
It  is  the  mature  judgment  of  all  who  have  thought 
upon  the  history  of  human  society  that  the  family  is 


THE   FAMILY  GROUP  151 

the  most  important  social  institution.  It  has  im- 
proved with  time.  Its  usefulness  has  not  been  sur- 
passed. It  is  as  sacred  as  religion.  It  is  the  master- 
piece among  the  creations  of  nature,  of  society,  and 
of  God. 


PROBLEMS 

1.  Why  are  so  many  American  families   giving  up  their 

homes  and  moving  into  apartments  or  flats? 

2.  Which  is  better  for  the  family,  the  single  dwelling  or 

the  flat? 

3.  Explain  the  statement  that  every  American  city  has  its 

housing   problem. 

4.  Why  is  there  so  much  overcrowding  in  the  United  States 

when  at  the  same  time  there  is  so  much  spacious 
territory  ? 

5.  Illustrate  the    statement:      There  is  no    room    to   live 

healthily. 

6.  Why  are  tuberculosis  and  crowded  housing  conditions 

found  together? 

7.  Why  are  good  people    who    live    in    large    apartment 

houses  negligent  as  to  how  the  janitor  of  the  apart- 
ment building  is  housed? 

8.  Why  do  many  poor  people  keep  the  windows  closed  in 

sleeping  rooms? 

9.  If  you  were  a  wage-earner  and  your  rent  were  suddenly 

raised,  would  you  take  in  lodgers  or  move    into    a 
smaller  number  of  rooms? 

10.  Is  the  percentage  of  people  who  own  their  homes  in  the 
United  States  decreasing  or  increasing? 


152  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

11.  Why  are  people  who  "live  up  geographically"  in  any 

city  rated  higher  socially  than  those  who  "live  down 
geographically?" 

12.  Why  do  many  landlords  feel  no  responsibility  for  the 

poor  health  conditions  which  their  properties  gen- 
erate? 

13.  What  is  the  "unearned  increment,"   and  how  does  it 

affect  the  question  of  housing? 

14.  Who  suffers  when  men  speculate  in  land  values? 

15.  What  is  a  municipal  lodging  house,  and  is  it  necessary? 

16.  What  percentage  of  a  man's  income  should  be  spent 

for  rent? 

17.  Explain  the  statement  that  you  can  kill  a  man,  woman, 

or  child  just  as  surely  with  a  tenement  as  with  a  gun. 

18.  What  is  "zoning,"  and  its  purpose? 

19.  Is  it  true  that  the  most  successful  person  in  the  world 

is  he  or  she  who  helps  to  rear  socially-minded  and 
socially-behaving  children? 


CHAPTER  VIII 
THE  PLAY  GROUP 


EVERY  CHILD  functions  early  in  life  as  a  member  / 
of  a  play  group.  At  the  age  of  two  or  three  years 
he  has  become  a  play  group  participator,  associating 
in  play  with  brothers,  sisters,  and  parents,  and  also 
with  neighborhood  and  other  acquaintanceship 
children.  Childhood  and  adolescence  are  largely 
play  group  phenomena.  Moreover  the  play  atti- 
tude functions  in  normal  human  beings  throughout 
life. 

1.  The  Play  Attitude.  The  function  of  the  play 
attitude  has  been  interpreted  variously.  (1)  The 
Romans  held  that  play  is  a  natural  expression  of 
the  life-energies  and  should  be  gratified  without  re- 
straint. The  social  product  was  uncontrolled  li- 
centiousness and  demoralizing  institutions. 

(2)  Early  Christianity  promptly  reacted  against 
Nero's  interpretation  of  the  play  attitude  and  swung 
to  the  opposite  extreme  of  urging  that  play  be  sup- 
pressed. Live  seriously  as  a  preparation  for  the 
next  world,  became  the  Augustinian  dictum.  Al- 
cuin,  the  celebrated  English  educator  of  the  Middle 


154  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

Ages,  developed  this  theory  of  the  function  of  play, 
and  it  became  dominant  in  Europe  for  many  cen- 
turies. This  rigid  form  of  control  received  expres- 
sion in  the  Puritanic  attitude  toward  amusements, 
and  prevailed  in  the  United  States  until  the  latter 
part  of  the  nineteenth  century. 

It  was  believed  that  play  is  useless,  or  worse  still, 
it  is  frivolous.  It  should  be  discouraged  and  sup- 
pressed. At  best  it  is  a  relatively  harmless  way  of 
amusing  children  who  are  too  young  to  be  doing 
anything  useful. 

(3)  In  the  closing  decades  of  the  last  century 
several  other  philosophic  theories  of  play  secured 
recognition.  Herbert  Spencer,  following  the  sug- 
gestion of  Schiller,  argued  that  play  is  essentially 
an  expression  of  surplus  energy.  When  a  growing 
child  accumulates  an  overflow  of  energy,  he  plays. 
This  theory,  however,  does  not  account  for  the  girl, 
for  example,  who  "jumps  the  rope"  until  she  falls 
from  exhaustion. 

t  The  recapitulation  theory,  wrhich  received  the 
attention  of  John  Fiske,  held  that  a  child  in  his  play 
life  is  primarily  living  over  rapidly  the  stages  of 
racial  development.  In  his  earlier  plays  he  is  ex- 
periencing the  days  of  savagery  of  the  race.  Then  he 
becomes  interested  in  play  activities  which  represent 
the  days  of  barbarism.  When  he  later  comes  to 
take  part  in  team  plays  and  co-operative  sports, 
he  is  said  to  have  reached  the  stage  of  civilization 


THE  PLAY  GROUP  155 

in  his  play  development. 

In  recent  years  play  has  been  defined  by  writers, 
such  as  Grosse,  as  an  instinctive  preparation  for  life. 
In  playing  with  a  spool,  that  is,  in  rolling  and  catch- 
ing a  spool,  a  kitten  is  getting  ready  for  the  serious 
business  of  catching  mice.  The  kitten  is  thereby  de- 
veloping claw  and  eye  co-ordinations,  which  will 
in  due  time  be  useful  in  procuring  food.  In  like 
manner  the  plays  of  a  lamb  are  a  preparation  for 
the  life  of  a  grazing  animal.  The  plays  of  a  small 
boy  are  preparing  him  for  activities  of  building,  con- 
structing, and  acquiring.  The  plays  of  a  small  girl 
with  her  dolls  are  fitting  her  for  motherhood.  Ac- 
cording to  this  interpretation  of  the  function  of  play, 
it  would  seem  that  play  is  "a  first-class  educational 
process." 

Play  teaches  respect  for  law.  In  no  other  way 
can  a  boy  so  fully  realize  for  himself  the  value  of 
law  as  on  the  playground.  By  the  same  token  he 
learns  respect  for  others,  acquires  habits  of  co- 
operation, and  sacrifices  selfish  ambitions  for  the 
welfare  of  the  group. 

Play  has  been  explained  by  John  Dewey  as  those 
activities  which  are  not  consciously  performed  for 
the  sake  of  any  reward  beyond  themselves.  They 
contain  their  own  motives.  Prizes  do  not  need  to 
be  devised  in  order  to  get  children  to  play;  as  soon 
as  prizes  are  offered,  the  goal  in  play  becomes 
objective  and  play  itself  becomes  work. 


156  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

The  play  impulses  have  been  pronounced  nature's 
way  and  God's  way  of  developing  body,  mind,  and 
character.  "The  Creator  has  purposely  set  the  be- 
ginning of  life  in  a  joyful  mood."  None  of  these 
theories  is  entirely  correct,  but  all  contain  more  or 
less  truth.  A  true  explanation  will  combine  the 
valid  elements  in  all  the  theories,  and  add  newly 
discovered  factors. 

Play  is  perhaps  not  only  a  preparation  for  life, 
but  also  a  preparation  for  more  life.  He  who  ceases 
to  maintain  the  play  attitude,  ages  rapidly  and  dies ; 
he  shrinks  within  himself.  It  is  an  important  ac- 
complishment to  be  able  to  turn  from  a  day's  work 
and  forget  the  perplexities  of  that  day's  work  in 
play.  Play  has  been  called  the  sovereign  re-creator 
necessary  especially  for  the  adult  worker.  Play  is 
no  luxury ;  it  is  a  natural  method  of  developing  self 
control  and  a  social  attitude.  It  needs  to  be  main- 
tained throughout  life. 

With  the  development  of  the  ideal  of  eight  hours 
for  work,  eight  hours  for  leisure,  and  eight  hours 
for  rest,  the  leisure  time  problem  becomes  a  problem 
of  prime  importance.  Commercial  interests  have 
capitalized  these  leisure  time  phenomena  for  pur- 
poses of  profit.  Belatedly,  the  social  uses  of  leisure 
time  have  been  receiving  attention. 

Play  is  a  problem  of  one-third  of  life.  The  leisure 
hours  are  becoming  as  important  as  the  work  hours. 
Civilization,  asserts  Frederick  C.  Howe,  depends 


THE  PLAY  GROUP  157 

largely  on  the  way  people  use  their  leisure  hours. 
These  may  mean  recuperation  from  work  or  the 
acquisition  of  vicious  habits,  the  invigoration  of 
body  and  mind,  or  the  destruction  of  life  itself.  The 
leisure  hours  of  a  hundred  million  people  are  becom- 
ing as  important  to  the  nation  as  the  hours  spent  at 
work,  or  as  the  time  spent  in  school  by  children. 

The  social  situation  regarding  play  in  a  country 
such  as  the  United  States  has  changed  in  the  last 
century.  A  hundred  years  ago  all  the  natural  activ- 
ities of  life  centered  in  the  home  group.  They  could 
be  expressed  within  the  physical  limits  of  the  home 
and  under  the  direction  of  home  control. 

The  modern  city  has  changed  this  social  situa- 
tion. Formerly  when  boys  could  expend  their  ener- 
gies upon  hillside  and  meadow  and  in  the  barnyard 
of  the  rural  home,  their  activities  were  relatively 
normal.  Today  in  the  city,  when  boys  must  play  up- 
on narrow  streets,  crowded  with  traffic,  lined  with 
shops  and  automobile  trucks,  the  parents  are  help- 
less. The  public  must  exercise  a  degree  of  wise  con- 
trol. 

Today  when  a  large  percentage  of  girls  who  learn 
to  dance,  do  so  away  from  home  and  in  dancing 
academies  commercially  established  and  operated 
for  profit,  the  quality  of  these  academies  becomes  a 
matter  with  which  the  public  has  every  need  to  con- 
cern itself.  As  Michael  M.  Davis,  Jr.  has  indicated, 
the  individual  parent  is  helpless  before  a  condition 


158  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

which  may  mean  the  physical  and  moral  destruc- 
tion of  his  child. 

The  modern  city  in  giving  boys  and  girls  oppor- 
tunities to  earn  money  at  an  early  age  and  then 
leaving  them  free  and  often  unguided  in  spending 
their  money  "as  they  choose  in  the  midst  of  vice 
deliberately  disguised  as  pleasure"  is  negligent.  Ap- 
parently, continues  Jane  Addams,  the  modern  city 
sees  in  working  girls,  for  example,  two  main  pos- 
sibilities, both  of  them  commercial :  first,  a  chance 
to  use  day  by  day  their  new  and  immature  labor 
power  in  its  factories  and  shops ;  and  then  another 
chance  in  the  evening  to  extract  from  them  their 
wages  by  catering  to  their  love  of  amusement  and 
play. 

As  a  result  of  the  play  processes,  so  dominant  and 
natural,  two  leading  types  of  play  institutions  have 
developed.  These  social  products  are  the  result  of 
the  commercialization  and  the  socialization  of  play. 

2.  The  Commercialization  of  Play.  Commercial 
enterprise  has  taken  advantage  of  the  play  attitude 
and  turned  it  into  dollars  for  the  benefit  of  a  few 
amusement  promoters.  It  has  furnished  amuse- 
ments for  every  period  of  life,  for  every  moral  level, 
and  for  all  types  of  intellectual  development.  This 
movement  began  in  an  organized  way  in  the  United 
States  as  early  as  1890. 

In  1907,  S.  N.  Patten  declared  that  we  had  gone 


THE  PLAY  GROUP  159 

little  further  than  to  permit  men  to  exploit  for  pri- 
vate gain  the  human  craving  to  be  amused.  "The 
workman  is  drawn  hither  and  thither  by  the  uncor- 
related  motley  devices  of  selfish  promoters  and  is 
often  solicited  by  them  until  he  has  dissipated  his 
vigor  and  lowered  his  moral  tone." 

When  the  workman  comes  from  "the  barren  in- 
dustrial grind"  of  the  day's  work,  where  is  he  in- 
vited most  loudly  to  turn,  if  not  to  a  great  variety  of 
amusement  institutions  in  which  the  melodramatic 
and  over-exciting  presentations  stand  out  foremost. 
The  leisure  of  the  people,  according  to  a  report  of 
the  Recreational  Inquiry  Committee  of  California, 
has  been  capitalized  by  private  individuals  through- 
out the  country  to  the  extent  of  billions  of  dollars. 
The  commercialization  of  the  play  impulses  of  the 
people  has  been  motivated,  continues  the  report,  by 
one  chief  desire,  not  to  increase  the  welfare  of  the 
people,  but  to  make  money.  Cheap  seaside  resorts 
have  sprung  up  over  night,  vieing  with  one  another, 
it  has  been  observed,  in  enticing  patrons  thither  by 
patriotic  or  salacious  posters  and  advertisements, 
and  in  furnishing  them  with  new  sensations.  The 
regular  frequenters  of  these  places  of  amusement 
are  reported  as  getting  so  much  excitement  for  a 
small  outlay  of  money,  that  they  find  the  attractions 
irresistible. 

From  an  investigation  that  was  made  as  early  as 
1907-1909  in  Manhattan,  New  York  City,  it  was 


160  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

found  that  the  commercial  dance  academy  and  the 
public  dance  hall  teach  more  than  forty  per  cent  of 
the  pupils  of  the  grade  schools  to  dance,  and  that 
three-fourths  of  these  boys  and  one-half  of  the  girls, 
nearly  all  under  fourteen  years  of  age,  go  with 
some  regularity  to  the  commercial  dancing  academy 
and  the  public  dance  hall  to  practice  their  skill.  One 
hundred  of  the  dancing  academies  in  Manhattan 
were  reaching  annually  not  less  than  100,000  paying 
pupils,  forty-five  per  cent  of  whom  were  under  six- 
teen years  of  age.  Notice  this  statement:  "Practi- 
cally all  the  young  girls  among  the  mass  of  the  peo- 
ple pass  during  the  period  of  adolescence  through 
the  education  of  the  dancing  academies.  We  have 
here  an  influence  over  the  adolescents  of  New  York 
which  is  of  practically  universal  scope." 

In  the  academies  of  questionable  type,  represent- 
ing at  least  one-half  of  the  total  number,  the  super- 
vision is  entirely  inadequate  and  men  and  women 
of  immoral  character  are  present.  When  alcoholic 
liquor  or  substitutes  for  liquor  are  used,  moral 
downfall  is  certain.  The  late  hours  are  also  harm- 
ful to  both  health  and  morals. 

The  dance  hall  differs  from  the  academy  in  that 
its  influence  is  worse.  The  proprietors  of  certain 
dance  halls  knowingly  permit  men  and  women  to 
corrupt  others.  Where  liquor  is  sold,  as  it  still  is 
in  the  dance  halls  in  many  countries,  the  effects  are 
destructive  and  vicious.  The  combination  of  sex- 


THE  PLAY  GROUP  161 

ually  vulgar  dancing,  of  drinking  liquor,  and  of  un- 
musical but  highly  stimulating  "jazz"  is  one  which 
the  ordinary  participant  cannot  withstand. 

Of  all  play  facilities,  states  the  California  recrea- 
tion report,  public  dance  halls  bear  the  most  direct 
and  immediate  relation  to  the  morals  of  their  pa- 
trons ;  they  are  in  many  cases  extremely  destructive. 
The  gains  are  so  overshadowed  that  space  will  not 
be  given  to  discussing  them. 

Of  all  dances,  continues  the  California  report,  the 
Saturday  all-night  dance  is  the  most  dangerous. 
Young  people  attend  these  dances  without  a  thought 
of  harm ;  and  parents  permit  their  sons  and  daugh- 
ters to  attend  without  realizing  the  true  character 
of  the  all-night  affair.  The  discussion  so  far  has 
indicated  some  of  the  dangers  that  are  represented 
by  the  dancing  academy  and  dance  hall ;  it  has  also 
shown  a  part  of  the  responsibility  which  the  city 
and  nation  must  bear  in  controlling  the  means  of 
recreation  for  youth. 

Theatres  may  be  divided  roughly  into  at  least 
four  classes,  namely,  vaudeville,  burlesque,  stand- 
ard theatres,  and  motion  picture  theatres.  In  re- 
gard to  the  vaudeville,  the  Manhattan  report  de- 
clares that  its  most  striking  characteristic  is  simple 
stupidity;  that  no  person  of  moderate  intelligence 
can  attend  a  dozen  vaudeville  performances  with- 
out being  disgusted  at  their  vapidity;  and  that 
some  of  the  acts  are  wholly  crude,  a  few  decidedly 


162  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

clever,  and  the  majority  trite  and  empty.  The 
vaudeville  is  like  many  exciting  occurrences — stim- 
ulating but  disintegrating.  It  excites  the  onlooker 
and  interests  him  transiently;  but  is  not  likely  to 
recuperate  or  develop  him.  It  represents  hyper- 
stimulus,  asserts  Dr.  M.  M.  Davis,  Jr.,  and  may 
lead  to  neurasthenia. 

The  burlesque  was  found  in  the  Manhattan  sur- 
vey to  be  the  most  undesirable  type  of  performance 
given  in  New  York  City.  As  a  type  it  was  diagnosed 
as  being  artistically  crude  and  intellectually 
stupid.  Its  appeal  is  based  on  facts  of  physical 
prowess  and  on  unwholesome  and  lewd  references 
to  sex  matters. 

The  standard  theatre,  chiefly  because  of  the  ad- 
mission charged,  draws  only  a  small  proportion  of 
the  theatre  going  people,  perhaps  not  more  than  ten 
per  cent.  The  working  classes  are  isolated  partly 
because  of  the  admission  prices,  and  hence  are  not 
privileged  to  attend  the  best  plays. 

The  standard  theater  has  offered  few  plays  of 
excellent  value.  There  is  an  opportunity  for  the 
citizens  of  every  community  to  promote  wholesome 
and  cultural  plays.  When  young  people  generally 
come  to  have  a  vital  appreciation  of  worth  while 
drama,  they  will  no  longer  be  satisfied  with  low 
and  unrefined  theatrical  performances. 

Motion  picture  theaters  began  to  attract  atten- 
tion in  the  United  States  at  the  close  of  the  last 


THE  PLAY  GROUP  163 

century.  By  1900,  they  were  becoming  well  known, 
although  the  cheaper  type  predominated;  by  1915, 
the  theaters  producing  elaborate  motion  pictures 
were  common  in  the  large  cities.  At  the  same  time 
motion  picture  producers  were  combining  into  pow- 
erful nation-wide  organizations ;  and  the  demand 
for  censorship  had  become  insistent. 

According  to  the  Manhattan  survey  in  which 
1,140  school  children  eleven  to  fourteen  years  of 
age  were  questioned,  it  was  found  that  sixteen  per 
cent,  a  surprisingly  large  percentage,  were  attend- 
ing motion  picture  shows  daily.  For  the  children 
of  the  common  people,  the  motion  picture  has  be- 
come the  main  amusement  center.  Motion  pictures 
have  become  the  leading  form  of  dramatic  repre- 
sentation for  both  children  and  adults  in  modern 
cities. 

A  part  of  the  great  popularity  of  the  motion 
picture  is  to  be  found  in  the  following  points :  ( 1 ) 
The  fascination  of  not  knowing  what  one  will  see, 
is  appealing.  (2)  No  punctuality  is  required;  a 
person  can  enter  and  take  a  seat  at  any  time  and 
leave  at  any  time.  (3)  No  special  degree  of  in- 
telligence is  needed;  no  attitude  toward  anything 
and  no  convictions  on  anything  are  necessary.  No 
knowledge  of  any  language  is  essential ;  consequent- 
ly, the  immigrant  is  reached  before  he  understands 
the  language  of  the  country.  (4)  A  fairly  good 
eyesight  and  the  admission  price  are  all  that  are  re- 


164  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

quired.  As  a  direct  and  immediate  appeal  to  the 
understanding,  the  motion  picture  is  paramount. 
(5)  An  appeal  to  one's  love  of  children,  of  home, 
of  flagj  of  religion,  of  courageous  action  is  usually 
made,  but  this  worthy  trait  is  often  more  than  off- 
set by  a  tantalizing  appeal  to  the  melodramatic, 
the  brutalizing,  or  the  sex  impulses.  (6)  The  family 
as  a  group  often  finds  it  feasible  to  attend  although 
the  jumbling  of  the  wholesome  and  unwholesome 
scenes  before  the  eyes  of  uncritical  children  and 
adolescents  is  deleterious. 

In  a  Los  Angeles  survey  of  down-town  motion 
pictures  it  was  found  that  from  the  standpoint  of 
the  social  value  of  the  films  shown,  only  fourteen 
per  cent  could  be  classed  as  positively  developmen- 
tal. The  remainder  varied  from  the  merely  enter- 
taining to  the  undesirable  and  demoralizing.  A  large 
percentage  was  found  to  appeal  directly  to  the  feel- 
ings and  emotions.  By  being  so  designed,  they  drew 
the  largest  audiences  and  hence  the  greatest  profits. 
The  effects  of  operating  motion  picture  shows  pri- 
marily for  profit  instead  of  for  social  welfare  were 
marked  and  frequently  unfortunate. 

A  leading  producer  has  said  that  the  picture 
which  draws  the  largest  audiences  represents  the 
level  of  intelligence  of  a  nine  year  old  boy ;  there- 
fore, the  common  run  of  film  is  made  on  that  in- 
tellectual level.  In  the  Los  Angeles  survey  several 
managers  described  their  attempts  to  put  on  films  of 


THE  PLAY  GROUP  165 

a  higher  educational  order  than  the  average,  but 
showed  that  as  a  result  the  size  of  the  audience  de- 
creased. The  public  does  not  go  to  the  motion 
picture  show  to  be  educated  but  to  be  amused;  it 
does  not  go  to  reason  or  to  think  hard,  but  in  a  pas- 
sive and  subjective  sense  to  play. 

Because  the  motion  picture  has  catered  so  often 
to  the  lower  elements  of  human  nature,  it  has  had 
to  face  the  form  of  control  known  as  censorship. 
The  need  for  censorship  is  clear;  the  California 
Recreational  Inquiry  indicated  that  of  1,263  films 
studied,  there  were  thirty-eight  per  cent  which  were 
marked  by  scenes  of  brutality  and  violence.  The 
harmful  effects  of  many  motion  pictures  upon  ad- 
olescent minds  are  beyond  doubt.  The  motion 
picture  also  exercises  such  subtle  effects  upon  the 
minds  of  adults  that  it  operates  as  a  powerful  psy- 
chological force  upon  the  entire  nation  group.  The 
public  is  hardly  yet  aware  of  this  far-reaching  psy- 
chological form  of  control.  If  in  the  United  States 
there  is  an  average  daily  attendance  of  literally 
millions  at  motion  picture  shows,  if  this  attendance 
involves  harmful  influences  upon  adolescents  and 
even  a  general  hypnotic  influence  upon  the  adult 
mind,  if  the  public  is  receiving  but  one-fifth  to  one- 
fourth  of  the  constructive  values  which  it  might 
from  the  billions  of  dollars  that  are  spent  on  this 
popular  form  of  entertainment,  then  it  is  time  that 
the  public  awoke  and  directed  the  motion  picture 


166  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

influence  to  ends  more  in  keeping  with  its  own  wel- 
fare. 

The  saloon,  although  outlawed  in  the  United 
States,  is  still  in  one  form  or  another  in  many 
countries  the  organized  and  legalized  institution 
of  the  liquor  traffic.  The  use  of  alcoholic  liquor 
has  been  common  to  all  peoples ;  it  has  met  various 
types  of  human  craving,  ranging  from  the  desire 
for  excitement  to  the  wish  to  deaden  one  feelings, 
and  drown  defeats  and  sorrows. 

While  the  European  nations  under  the  trying 
stress  of  the  World  War  declared  officially  against 
alcoholism,  they  tended  to  revert  at  the  close  of  the 
war  to  alcoholic  orgies.  If  the  use  of  alcoholic 
liquor  militates  against  efficiency  in  war,  the  ar- 
gument is  strong  for  the  elimination  of  the  same  in 
connection  with  the  strenuous  activities  and  con- 
flicts in  times  of  peace,  for  it  is  in  these  periods  that 
a  nation  grows  strong  or  weak  and  lays  the  found- 
ations for  future  successes  or  defeats. 

It  has  been  made  clear  by  E.  T.  Devine  in  a  care- 
ful study  that  before  the  eighteenth  amendment  to 
the  Constitution  went  into  effect  in  the  United 
Sates  one-fourth  of  all  cases  of  destitution  were 
fairly  attributable  to  intemperance.  Moreover,  a 
study  of  about  13,000  convicts  in  seventeen  prisons 
and  reformatories  in  this  country  by  the  Committee 
of  Fifty  indicated  that  intemperance  was  one  of  the 
main  causes  in  fifty-one  per  cent  and  the  leading 


THE  PLAY  GROUP  167 

cause  in  thirty-one  per  cent  of  the  criminal  cases 
studied.  The  reports  from  boards  of  insanity  have 
shown  that  alcoholism  is  a  specific  causal  factor  in 
about  twenty  per  cent  of  insanity  cases.  Before 
the  eighteenth  amendment  became  effective,  the 
mortality  reports  indicated  that  approximately 
100,000  deaths  a  year  in  the  United  States  were  due 
in  some  specific  way  to  the  use  of  alcoholic  liquor. 

Moreover,  alcoholism  is  now  known  to  have  a 
disastrous  effect  upon  heredity;  many  noticeable 
cases  of  degeneracy  in  the  offspring  of  alcoholic 
parents  have  been  observed.  The  use  of  alcoholic 
liquor  is  becoming  recognized  throughout  the  world 
as  poisonous  to  the  individual,  and  economically 
and  morally  wasteful  to  both  individuals  and  the 
group.  The  saloon  and  its  counterparts  are  un- 
doubtedly passing  as  social  institutions.  The  en- 
actment of  a  prohibition  amendment,  however,  does 
not  become  effective  until  the  habits  of  the  people 
become  reconstructed.  Such  a  process  for  a  large 
population  group  may  take  twenty  or  more  years. 
The  legal  control  must  be  supported  by  a  psycholog- 
ical control. 

The  play  attitudes  have  been  appealed  to  at  their 
most  vulnerable  points  by  persons  motivated  pri- 
marily by  profitism.  This  process  has  been  skill- 
fully planned  out  by  shrewd  individuals.  The  so- 
cial products  have  been  institutions,  often  flam- 
boyant, harboring  an  atmosphere  of  patriotism  and 


168  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

subtly  enticing  the  public,  especially  the  young. 

3.  The  Socialization  of  Play.  Socially-minded 
persons  have  led  the  way  in  creating  institutions 
that  develop  the  play  attitude  constructively,  irre- 
spective of  financial  gain.  Of  the  group  of  socialized 
play  activities  the  playground  movement  easily 
leads.  Then  come  the  play  activities  which  focus 
in  the  schools,  social  settlements,  community  recrea- 
tion centers,  and  religious  organizations,  such  as  the 
Christian  Associations,  the  Knights  of  Columbus, 
fraternal  orders,  and  the  like. 

(1)  The  playground  movement  began  in  the 
United  States  about  1880;  it  won  public  attention 
about  1900;  and  by  1910,  it  had  secured  wide  recog- 
nition. Within  the  first  decade  of  the  present  cen- 
tury, over  $60,000,000  was  expended  in  this  country 
in  furthering  the  playground  movement.  There  are 
now  thousands  of  playgrounds,  located  in  the  larger 
cities,  having  paid  supervision,  and  representing  the 
expenditure  of  millions  of  dollars  of  public  money 
for  the  purpose  of  making  helpful  play  activities 
possible  at  a  nominal  cost  or  free  of  charge  to  hud- 
dled urban  people. 

Seven  main  stages  in  the  playground  movement 
in  this  country  have  been  clearly  analyzed  by  Clar- 
ence E.  Rainwater.  These  are:  (a)  the  sand  garden 
stage,  (b)  the  model  playground  stage,  (c)  the 
small  park  stage,  (d)  the  recreation  center  stage, 


THE  PLAY  GROUP  169 

(e)  the  civic  art  and  welfare  stage,  (f )  the  neighbor- 
hood organization  stage,  and  (g)  the  community 
service  stage.  This  exhibit  reveals  the  general  trend 
of  an  important  social  development. 

The  playground  movement  has  tended  toward  an 
all-year  playground  service ;  it  has  taken  into  con- 
sideration the  young  working  boys  and  girls  as  well 
as  school  children.  It  has  reached  into  the  adult 
world  and  organized  whole  communities,  giving 
them  an  opportunity  to  decide  upon  the  type  of  rec- 
reation that  they  need,  encouraging  them  to  pro- 
vide recreation  for  themselves  at  a  minimum  charge, 
and  withal  and  indirectly  developing  in  them  a  so- 
cial consciousness  and  a  community  participation 
which  lies  at  the  heart  of  any  truly  democratic  life. 

Dr.  Rainwater  has  summarized  the  nine  leading 
transitions  in  the  play  movement  as  follows:  (a) 
from  provision  for  little  children  to  that  for  all 
ages  of  people;  (b)  from  facilities  operated  during 
the  summer  only,  to  those  operated  throughout  the 
year;  (c)  from  outdoor  equipment  and  activities 
only,  to  both  outdoor  and  indoor  facilities  and 
events;  (d)  from  congested  urban  districts  to  both 
urban  and  rural  communities;  (e)  from  philan- 
thropic to  community  support  and  control;  (f) 
from  "free"  play  and  miscellaneous  events  to  "di- 
rected" play  with  organized  activities  and  corre- 
lated schedules;  (g)  from  a  simple  to  a  complex 
field  of  activities  including  manual,  physical,  aes- 


170  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

thetic,  social,  and  civic  projects;  (h)  from  the  pro- 
vision of  facilities  to  the  definition  of  standards 
for  the  use  of  leisure  time;  and  (i)  from  "individ- 
ual" interests  to  "group"  and  community  activities. 

The  playground  movement  rests  upon  the  prin- 
ciples that  the  dominant  interest  in  the  life  of  youth 
is  play,  not  work,  and  that  the  best  development 
at  this  age  comes  from  play  rather  than  work.  It 
also  represents  the  principle  that  adults  need  whole- 
some and  constructive  play  which  will  offer  true 
recuperation  from  a  neurasthenic  urban  pace. 

(2)  The  public  school  has  had  its  playground, 
but  no  organized  play  activities.  Recently  it  has 
caught  a  new  impetus  from  the  playground  move- 
ment, and  consequently  boards  of  education  are 
providing  playground  directors  not  only  for  school 
days  but  for  the  holidays  and  vacations,  when  in 
metropolitan  districts  such  directors  are  most  need- 
ed. 

The  public  school  is  becoming  a  recreation  and 
civic  center.  For  educational  purposes  the  schools 
ordinarily  are  used  less  than  eight  hours  a  day, 
five  days  in  the  week,  and  nine  or  ten  months  in  the 
year.  They  lie  idle  perhaps  fifty  per  cent  of  the 
time  which  they  might  be  used.  The  ways  in  which 
this  time  for  recreation  center  activities  could  be 
utilized  was  demonstrated  in  1907  in  Rochester. 
New  York,  where  the  gymnasiums  were  opened  in 
the  evening  for  the  use  of  adults  as  well  as  children ; 


THE  PLAY  GROUP  171 

where  folk  dancing,  music,  and  dramatics  were  en- 
couraged ;  and  where  banquets  and  public  meetings 
became  common. 

(3)  The  social  settlements  and  institutions  do- 
ing similar  work  have  usually  given  emphasis  to 
recreational  needs.    They  have  generally  been  lo- 
cated in  the  heart  of  congested  districts,  and  hence 
have  been  quick  to  appreciate  the  few  constructive 
opportunities  for  play  which  the  poorer  people  have 
at  their  command.     They  have  responded  to  this 
need  splendidly,  despite  the  limited  means  at  their 
disposal.     They    have    pioneered;    the    successful 
methods  which  they  have  worked  out,  have  some- 
times been  adopted  by  the  city  or  district  and  put 
into  operation  on  a  large  scale  by  the  use  of  public 
money.    They  understand  the  needs  of  the  masses ; 
and  hence  are  in  strategic  positions  relative  to  form- 
ulating a  socio-recreational  procedure. 

(4)  Public   parks  have    afforded  only    a    small 
amount  of  recreation  for  the  working  people  who 
have  needed  most  the  advantages  that  parks  offer. 
They  have  been  located  usually  in  the  wealthy  and 
well-to-do  sections  of  the  city.    Park  boards  have 
merely  entered  upon  the  heavy  program  before  them 
of  improving  and  extending  the  play  facilities  of 
publicly  owned  spaces. 

(5)  The  churches  are  beginning  to  recognize  that 
wholesome  play  activities  are  normal  social  prod- 
ucts.    The  recreation  impulses  are  such  powerful 


172  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

forces  for  the  moral  good  or  ill  of  children,  young 
people,  and  adults  that  churches  are  beginning  to 
assume  a  positive  attitude  toward  them.  Some 
churches  have  been  among  the  chief  agents  in 
bringing  about  the  establishment  of  playgrounds 
and  recreation  centers.  While  this  work  may  be 
taken  over  later  by  the  school  or  city,  the  pioneer 
experiments  and  the  splendid  examples  that  are 
set  are  in  themselves  worth  while.  The  church  may 
hold  not  only  socials  and  similar  meetings  but  in  a 
large  way  take  the  lead  in  making  helpful  provision 
for  the  recreational  life  of  boys  and  girls. 

In  many  instances  the  churches  have  lead  the  bat- 
tle in  suppressing  evil  amusements.  They  may  well 
go  further  and  assume  the  leadership  in  bringing 
public  opinion  to  the  point  where  it  will  demand 
that  socialized  provisions  be  made  for  meeting  the 
play  attitudes  of  all  the  people. 

In  providing  for  a  more  extended  socialization  01 
play  a  comprehensive  procedure  is  needed,  one 
which  all  can  and  will  support.  It  includes  ( 1 )  the 
education  of  the  public  regarding  basic  considera- 
tions. For  example,  the  public  should  perceive 
how  modern  industry  and  the  city  have  created 
home  conditions  for  the  masses  that  are  too  crowded 
and  ill-arranged  to  permit  the  enjoyable  spend- 
ing of  leisure  time  within  the  home.  The  public 
needs  to  perceive  how  commercial  enterprise  has 
taken  advantage  of  the  play  attitude,  catering  to 


THE  PLAY  GROUP  173 

the  play  impulses  of  every  age-period  in  life,  and 
"to  every  grade  of  intellectual,  artistic,  and  moral 
development."  The  public  needs  to  appreciate  how 
commercialized  recreation  in  developing  under  a 
laissez  faire  public  policy  has  led  often  to  the  moral 
and  economic  exploitation  of  children  and  to  the 
deterioration  of  adults.  Recreation  under  modern 
complex  conditions  can  no  longer  be  left  entirely 
to  individual  and  commercial  control. 

Public  control  cannot  neglect  the  fact  that  chil- 
dren and  adults  alike  require  and  will  have  amuse- 
ments of  some  sort.  Such  control  must  not  .be 
merely  repressive  of  existing  evil  tendencies,  but 
must  also  be  constructive.  Every  community,  rural 
and  urban,  may  well  have  a  recreation  committee 
or  commission  to  study  the  play  needs  of  their  re- 
spective communities  and  see  that  they  are  whole- 
somely provided  for. 

(2)  A  recreation  body  will  find  its  largest  work 
in  planning  and  providing  for  the  future.  If  the 
given  community  is  a  crowded  urban  district,  the 
duties  of  the  recreation  body  will  be  strenuous  also 
with  reference  to  meeting  present  needs.  The  sit- 
uation will  require  adequate  surveys  of  recreation 
needs  and  facilities,  definite  correlation  of  available 
recreative  means,  and  constructive  programs  mov- 
ing in  many  directions. 

There  will  be  a  need  for  state  recreation  commis- 
sions in  order  to  correlate  the  work  of  rural  and 


174  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

urban  recreation  leaders.  In  fact,  so  great  is  the 
scope  of  recreation  needs  that  a  national  recreation 
commission  has  important  functions  to  perform  in 
correlating  the  work  of  state  commissions  and  pro- 
moting new  methods.  Recreation  committees  and 
commissions  have  at  their  command  a  considerable 
number  of  principles  of  procedure  for  the  socializa- 
tion of  play. 

(3)  The  development  of  home  recreation  is  es- 
sential. Even  in  comfortable  homes  there  has  arisen 
a  tendency  for  the  young  people  to  get  away  after 
the  dinner  hour  in  order  to  enjoy  themselves,  thus 
driving  the  iron  wedge  of  isolation  into  home  life. 
After  all,  the  home  has  perhaps  the  best  possibilities 
of  becoming  a  socialized  recreation  center.    Recrea- 
tion responsibilities  for  children  rest  urgently  upon 
parents. 

(4)  The  conservation  of  home  yards  for  play  pur- 
poses is  important.    The  co-operation  of  recreation 
commissions  and  housing  commissions  may  pro- 
duce beneficent  results  in  preserving  not  only  gar- 
den space  but  small  play  spaces. 

(5)  The  provision    of    small    playgrounds    for 
young  children  is  another  standard  need.    In  Phil- 
adelphia, a  study  of  the  attendance  at  playgrounds 
showed  that  seventy-four  per  cent  of  the  attendance 
of  the  younger  children  was  from  homes  within 
three  blocks,  or  five  minutes  walk,  of  such  play- 
grounds.   The  radius  of  efficiency  of  a  playground, 


THE  PLAY  GROUP  175 

according  to  the  Milwaukee  study,  was  from  one- 
fourth  to  one-half  a  mile. 

For  adolescents  over  fourteen  years  of  age  in 
cities  of  size,  larger  playfields  and  parks  should 
be  provided  within  twenty  minutes  walk  of  any 
home.  Another  safe  rule  to  follow  is  to  spend  twice 
as  much  on  supervision  as  on  any  special  form  of 
equipment. 

(6)  The  use  of  school  grounds  throughout  the 
year  as  neighborhood  playgrounds  under  supervi- 
sion is  important  in  congested  city  districts.    The 
school  property  may  become  an  excellent  civic  and 
social  center  for  the  neighborhood. 

(7)  Small  parks  for  breathing  spaces,  larger  parks 
for  outings,  and  even  mountain  parks  for  camping 
parties  may  well  be  developed  before  land  values 
become  prohibitive. 

(8)  All  philanthropic  institutions    need    ample 
play  provisions,  a  point  that  Bessie  D.  Stoddart  has 
well  stated:  Play  is  needed  in  homes  for  the  aged 
because  of  the  relief  from  dreariness  which  it  offers. 
It  is  needed  in  hospitals  for  the  insane,  because 
of  its  curative  and  educational  value.    It  is  needed 
in  the  homes  for  the  feeble-minded,  because  of  its 
value  in  developing  latent  ability.    It  is  needed  in 
homes  for  the  care  of  epileptics,  of  the  chronically 
ill,  and  of  the  blind  and  deaf,  for  its  cheering  and 
educational  value.     It  is  needed  in  orphanages  to 
create  the  atmosphere  of  the  normal  home  and  to 


176  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

keep  children  from  becoming  institutionalized.  It 
is  needed  in  reform  schools  and  homes  for  delin- 
quent children  in  order  to  develop  constructive 
impulses  and  to  curb  destructive  ones.  It  is  needed 
in  jails  and  penitentiaries  to  help  reform  those  who 
are  imprisoned  and  re-create  in  them  a  favorable 
attitude  toward  normal  group  life.  In  other  words 
provisions  for  useful  play  are  needed  by  all  persons 
who  are  physically,  mentally,  or  morally  afflicted,  as 
much  as  by  normal  persons. 

(9)  One  of  the  most  difficult  tasks  is  that  of  se- 
curing proper  inspection,  control,  and  suppression 
where  needed,  of  the  commercialized  amusements 
of  the  day,  including  dance  halls  and  academies, 
cafes,  drinking-inns,  the  theaters,  and  motion-pic- 
ture houses.  In  suppressing  commercialized  amuse- 
ments, it  is  usually  wise  to  provide  adequate,  con- 
structive substitutes.     In  controlling  them,  it  is 
clear  that  they  must  be  measured  by  standards  of 
true  recreation  rather  than  of  deterioration. 

(10)  Socialized  play  must  distinguish  between 
amusement  and  recreation.    Amusement  is  the  pas- 
sive, relaxing  phase  of  play;  it  is    the    spectator 
phase.  The  amused  person  is  one  usually  who  sits 
still  and  looks  on  while  some  one  else  plays  or  works 
or  overworks.    Recreation  on  the  other  hand  is  the 
active  re-creative  element  in  play;  it  is  the  con- 
structive, invigorating  phase. 

A  current  tendency  is  to  accentuate  amusement 


THE  PLAY  GROUP  177 

at  the  expense  of  recreation.  The  emphasis  may 
safely  be  reversed.  The  majority  of  adults  and 
many  adolescents  can  secure  ample  amusement  in 
real  recreation;  in  fact,  many  persons  obtain  genu- 
ine recreation  through  their  work,  providing  that  it 
contains  opportunities  for  creative  expression.  Work 
which  is  so  specialized  that  it  contains  no  interest- 
ing elements,  and  which  is  merely  repeating  the  task 
of  making  one-eighteenth  of  a  pin  all  day  long  and 
day  after  day  and  week  after  week,  compels  the 
worker  to  look  to  the  end  of  the  day  or  week  for 
his  recreation.  Such  work  however  is  abnormal. 
The  stress  should  be  placed  on  play  as  a  creating 
and  re-creating  process,  and  of  maintaining  those 
forms  of  work  which  contain  a  large  percentage  of 
recreative  elements.  Only  socialized  play  groups 
are  truly  helpful. 


178  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 


PROBLEMS 

1.  Distinguish  between  play  and  work. 

2.  What  is  the  main  function  of  a  football  game? 

3.  Why  is  making  artificial  flowers,  work;   and  climbing 

Mont  Blanc,  play? 

4.  If  giving  up  tobacco  is  necessary  for  physical  fitness  in 

preparation  for  football  games,  why  is  it  not  given 
up  in  preparation  for  the  strenuous  activities  of  daily 
life? 

5.  Explain  the  statement  that  the  parks  are  often  too  far 

away  from  the  individuals  who  need  them. 

6.  WThat  is  the  tenement  child's  most  common  playground? 

7.  Explain:  "Milwaukee  spends  a  thousand  years  of  leisure 

each  week." 

8.  Is  it  often  true  that  an  American's  idea  of  a  holiday  is 

a  fatiguing  journey? 

9.  Who  is  in  greater  need  of  provision  for  play,  the  chil- 

dren of  the  poor  or  of  the  rich? 

10.  What  are  the  main  arguments  for  and  against  censor- 
ship of  motion  pictures? 


CHAPTER  IX 
THE  OCCUPATIONAL  GROUP 


HUMAN  LIFE  is  focused  first  in  the  family  and 
play  groups.  In  adolescence  the  occupational 
group  begins  to  receive  attention.  Play  and  work 
are  or  may  be  closely  related  if  not  synonymous,  or 
they  may  be  disjunctive.  As  long  as  a  person  finds 
a  full  supply  of  new  and  interesting  possibilities  in 
any  activity,  he  is  playing;  when  the  center  of  in- 
terest shifts  to  an  end  or  goal  outside  the  specific 
activity,  play  is  sublimated  into  work,  and  an  occu- 
pational status  has  been  established. 

As  an  individual  develops  and  his  horizon  ex- 
pands, life  becomes  divided  into  means  and  ends. 
The  attitude  of  considering  every  activity  as  a 
means  to  an  end  becomes  fixed,  and  living  be- 
comes working.  The  tendency  is  to  shift  the 
object  of  interest  from  the  activity  of  the  mo- 
ment to  a  more  or  less  remote  goal.  Through  over- 
specialization  modern  industry  has  tended  to  rob 
normal  work  activities  of  focii  of  interest;  the 
workman  comes  to  view  his  day's  work,  not  for  its 
creative  opportunities,  but  as  a  means  to  an  end, 
which  is  commonly  the  pay  check. 


\ 


180  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

1.  Occupational  Beginnings.  Among  early  hu- 
man groups,  the  elemental  impulse  of  hunger,  per- 
haps more  than  any  other  influence  led  to  indus- 
trial activity.  Primitive  people  satisfied  this  im- 
pulse by  searching  for  food  and  by  living  upon 
what  they  could  raise.  Hence  they  gorged  and 
starved,  feasted  and  fasted,  according  to  their  skill 
or  luck  in  finding  food. 

As  an  aid  in  this  search  for  food,  primitive  people 
invented  crude  weapons  and  tools.  Man — the  only 
tool-using  animal — invented  knives  for  cutting, 
scrapers  for  abrasing,  hammers  for  fracturing,  need- 
les and  awls  for  perforating,  tongs  for  grasping,  and 
so  on,  throughout  a  long  list  of  increasingly  com- 
plex implements.  It  was  a  remarkable  advance 
when  man  learned  how  to  kindle  a  fire,  and  could 
use  fire  for  cooking  purposes.  Another  achievement 
is  represented  by  the  discovery  of  drying  foods  in 
the  sun  or  before  a  fire,  as  a  means  of  preserving 
them  for  times  of  scarcity. 

Man  moved  forward  again  when  he  learned  to 
domesticate  animals.  This  domestication  resulted 
in  giving  the  human  race  valuable  assistance  in  its 
industrial  activities ;  in  the  dog,  man  had  an  assist- 
ant in  the  chase ;  and  in  the  ox,  a  beast  of  burden. 

The  digging  stick,  as  the  forerunner  of  hoe-cul- 
ture and  later  of  agriculture,  was  used  to  scratch 
the  surface  of  the  soil  for  the  planting  of  seeds.  For 
long  centuries,  doubtless,  women  with  digging  sticks 


THE  OCCUPATIONAL  GROUP  181 

and  similar  crude  implements  managed  to  raise  a 
few  herbs  and  roots,  and  thus  provide  against  pe- 
riods of  famine.  In  the  meantime,  men  were  en- 
gaged chiefly  in  the  pursuit  of  the  hunt  and  chase. 

Another  forward  step  was  taken  when  domesti- 
cated animals  were  kept  in  flocks  and  herds,  thus 
providing  a  stable  food  supply.  Pastoral  and  no- 
madic life  developed.  In  order  to  secure  pasturage, 
it  was  necessary  for  the  people  to  wander  with  the 
flocks  up  the  valleys  and  mountain  slopes  in  the 
summer  and  back  again  in  the  winter. 

Along  with  the  development  of  hoe-culture,  ag- 
riculture, and  pastoral  occupations,  there  arose  the 
institution  of  private  property.  Tools  and  weapons 
were  early  considered  to  be  the  private  property 
of  the  maker  of  them.  With  the  increase  of  flocks 
and  herds  the  institution  of  private  property  seems 
to  have  become  well  established.  Land  and  pas- 
turage, however,  were  first  considered  group  prop- 
erty. Each  tribe  or  group  possessed  its  generally 
recognized  territory,  throughout  which  it  might 
wander  with  its  flocks. 

The  use  of  land  as  an  occupational  activity  is 
primeval  and  universal.  Hoe-culture  including  the 
protection  of  roots  and  tubers  for  future  consump- 
tion developed  into  tillage  of  the  soil  with  oxen  and 
plough.  When  men  turned  from  the  hunt  as  a  means 
of  livelihood  to  hoe-culture  which  was  developed 
first  probably  by  women,  they  made  application  of 


182  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

the  technical  skill  which  they  had  acquired.  As  a 
result,  hoe-culture  was  supplanted  by  crude  forms 
of  agriculture. 

With  the  rise  of  agriculture,  primitive  groups 
passed  from  the  flesh  diet  of  nomadism  to  a  pre- 
dominant use  of  vegetable  foods.  The  roaming  life 
of  hunting  days  and  pastoral  nomadism  gave  way 
to  the  settled  life  of  agriculture.  With  the  cultiva- 
tion of  the  soil  and  the  accompanying  vast  increase 
in  food  supply,  population  multiplied.  Agriculture 
made  fixed  abodes  necessary,  augmented  popula- 
tion, and  led  to  the  establishment  of  village  com- 
munities. All  these  changes  led  to  the  production 
of  new  forms  of  wealth.  The  creation  of  wealth  in 
itself  became  an  occupation. 

With  stationary  abodes,  the  holding  of  slaves  be- 
came feasible.  Slavery  acquired  an  occupational 
status.  Under  nomadism  and  earlier  forms  of 
human  existence  the  food  supply  was  so  small  and 
uncertain  and  life  was  so  migratory  that  it  was 
usually  necessary  to  kill  captives  taken  in  warfare. 
With  the  rise  of  agricultural  occupations,  it  was 
better  to  enslave  captives  than  to  kill  them.  The 
cultivation  of  the  soil  by  slave  labor  represented  at 
first  an  advance.  Slavery  gradually  became  eco- 
nomically unprofitable  and  was  ultimately  sup- 
planted by  free  labor. 

Down  to  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
agriculture  was  the  leading  occupational  activity  of 


THE  OCCUPATIONAL  GROUP  183 

mankind.  The  serf  system  of  cultivating  the  soil 
existed  for  centuries.  Then,  free  labor  and  the  wage 
system  were  found  to  be  more  profitable.  With  the 
Industrial  Revolution  and  the  manufacture  of  tools 
on  a  large  scale  came  new  agricultural  develop- 
ments. The  division  of  land  into  farms  under  in- 
dependent ownership  became  common.  The  in- 
crease in  population  and  in  the  demand  for  food 
tended  to  bring  about  a  change  from  extensive  to 
modern  intensive  farming  and  to  establish  the 
scientific  agriculture  of  the  twentieth  century. 

Current  agricultural  problems  are  numerous ;  the 
discussion  of  them  will  be  elaborated  in  the  chapter 
on  Rural  and  Urban  Groups.  It  is  difficult  to  main- 
tain upon  farms,  for  example  in  the  United  States,  a 
class  of  people  who  have  succeeded;  they  move  to 
the  cities,  thus  depriving  rural  districts  of  their  ex- 
periences, stirring  attitudes,  and  leadership.  Fur- 
thermore, tenant  farming  is  on  the  increase;  it  is 
becoming  more  and  more  difficult  for  a  young  man 
without  means  to  marry,  rear  a  family,  and  pay  for 
a  farm.  Young  people  of  initiative  and  education 
leave  the  farms  for  the  city ;  rural  leadership  is  de- 
pleted. The  rise  of  land  values  under  private  own- 
ership tends  to  bring  about  the  concentration  of 
land  ownership  in  the  hands  of  a  small  percentage 
of  the  population.  Land  and  food  may  ultimately 
become  so  precious  that  it  will  be  necessary  to  limit 
the  amount  of  land  that  one  person  or  a  group  of 


184  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

persons  may  own  and  to  limit  rentals.  Speculation 
in  land  creates  untold  hardship  for  young  people 
who  have  initiative  and  character  but  who  possess 
no  economic  advantages.  In  its  methods  of  social 
control  of  land  the  national  group  may  well  en- 
courage rather  than  penalize  young  men  and 
women  who  wish  to  establish  homes  on  rural  acre- 
age of  their  own. 

The  home  attitude  of  young  people  in  the  United 
States  is  changing ;  they  are  giving  up  the  desire  to 
own  their  own  homes  and  are  becoming  content  to 
live  as  tenants  and  spend  their  lives  "in  going  up 
and  down  other  people's  stairways."  The  respon- 
sibility for  this  attitude  rests,  not  primarily  upon 
the  young  people,  but  upon  those  who  are  profiting 
from  special  economic  privileges  derived  from  the 
present  system  of  land  ownership  and  who  selfishly 
refuse  to  sacrifice  special  privilege  for  the  sake  of 
other  people,  of  little  children,  and  of  national  wel- 
fare. 

2.  Labor  and  Unionization.  According  to  the 
earliest  occupational  divisions  men  engaged  in 
hunting  and  fighting,  while  women  cared  for  the 
children,  did  the  work  about  the  habitations,  and 
gave  some  attention  to  hoe-culture.  Settled  agri- 
cultural activities  crystalized  and  slavery  developed. 
Inasmuch  as  people  who  worked  for  wages  acquired 
an  attitude  of  personal  independence,  they  did  more 


THE  OCCUPATIONAL  GROUP  185 

work  per  day  than  slaves,  or  even  than  serfs;  free 
labor  thus  ultimately  supplanted  both  slave  and 
serf  labor. 

Among  primitive  specializations  of  labor,  the 
activities  of  medicine  men  and  priests  are  note- 
worthy. The  persons  in  these  occupations  possessed 
a  superior  technique  for  controlling  the  minds  of 
their  fellows.  Their  so-called  superior  knowledge 
was  usually  a  highly  organized  form  of  superstition 
and  magic.  Nevertheless,  from  similar  unscientific 
origins  nearly  all  the  modern  professions  have 
arisen. 

A  profession  may  be  distinguished  from  a  trade 
in  that  the  latter  deals  primarily  with  material 
things  and  transforms  these  useful  commodities, 
whereas  the  former  deals  with  service  and  the  crea- 
tion of  health,  knowledge,  happiness,  better  govern- 
ment, and  better  living.  The  professional  groups 
have  originated  class  ethics,  class  organizations, 
and  class  attitudes.  They  have  usually  been  al- 
lied with  the  higher  well-to-do  and  wealthy  groups. 
Often  they  have  represented  the  middle  class  atti- 
tude and  served  as  a  steady  mean  between  the  eco- 
nomic extremes.  Each  profession  has  developed  a 
high  degree  of  pride,  and  possesses  a  strong  occu- 
pational mind.  This  mind  has  produced  biases, 
narrowmindedness,  and  intolerance  which  are  to 
be  charged  to  over-specialization  and  lack  of  special- 
ization. 


186  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

Free  labor  and  the  wage  system  led  to  the  or- 
ganization of  labor.  The  craft  gilds  of  mediaeval 
times  were  among  the  first  organizations  of  produc- 
tive forces ;  these  included  both  merchant  or  manu- 
facturer and  employee. 

The  rise  of  the  factory  system  in  the  latter  part 
of  the  eighteenth  century  drew  laborers  together 
under  single  roofs,  giving  them  a  basis  for  class  con- 
sciousness. They  were  drawn  away  from  the  homes 
of  their  employers  where  they  worked  under  the 
domestic  system  of  industry,  and  thus  they  lost 
touch  with  the  employer's  point  of  view.  When  em- 
ployer and  employee  lost  contact  with  each  other 
under  the  factory  system  modern  industrial  troubles 
began ;  each  ceased  to  accommodate  himself  to  the 
other's  situation. 

The  application  of  steam  as  a  motive  force  in 
operating  machinery  revolutionized  industry. 
Hand-driven  tools  were  supplanted  by  power-driven 
machinery ;  and  the  home  as  the  unit  of  production 
gave  way  to  the  factory.  Although,  ,the  factory 
system  and  large-scale  production  imply  mutual 
dependence,  the  loss  of  personal  contact  between 
employer  and  employee  has  led  to  endless  industrial 
troubles.  Labor  began  to  organize  for  its  own  pro- 
tection; capital  likewise  organized  for  its  own  ad- 
vancement. Labor  wished  to  secure  control  of  in- 
dustry ;  capital  wished  to  dominate.  Two  large  and 
powerful  classes  have  arisen  with  a  black  gulf  be- 


THE  OCCUPATIONAL  GROUP  187 

tween  them. 

During  the  nineteenth  century  labor  unions  in 
the  United  States  developed  from  the  status  of  local 
organizations  to  national  trade  unions,  and  then 
into  a  general  federation,  the  American  Federation 
of  Labor.  They  believe  in  collective  bargaining, 
that  is,  that  the  representatives  of  the  unions  shall 
meet  with  the  representatives  of  the  given  employ- 
ers, and  together  determine  wage  scales,  hours  of 
labor,  and  other  conditions  of  work. 

The  trade  unionists  use  two  main  methods:  ar- 
bitration and  strikes.  They  are  usually  willing  to 
abide  by  the  rule  of  arbitration,  providing  they  are 
sure  that  a  fair  board  of  arbitrators  has  been  chosen. 
Reasonable  trade  unionists  believe  that  broad- 
minded  employers  and  they,  after  friendly  discus- 
sion of  disputed  points,  will  agree.  They  prefer 
the  personal  method  of  meeting  employers  through 
representatives;  they  urge  arbitration.  They  in- 
sist that  if  capital  has  the  right  to  organize,  labor 
has  a  similar  right.  They  ask  that  the  representa- 
tives of  organized  labor  be  accorded  a  fair  hearing 
by  the  representatives  of  organized  capital. 

If  denied  what  they  consider  a  fair  hearing,  trade 
unionists  call  a  strike;  they  lay  down  their  tools 
and  walk  out.  This  method  is  a  powerful  weapon. 
In  recent  years  the  strike  has  become  a  menace  to 
the  public,  for  example,  a  general  railroad  strike, 
paralyzing  the  means  of  transporting  food  and 


188  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

bringing  starvation  to  the  doors  of  the  poor.  If  the 
public  denies  labor  the  right  to  strike,  as  seems 
necessary,  the  public  is  under  obligation  to  provide 
labor  with  other  means  of  obtaining  justice. 

The  moderate  trade  unionist,  following  the  an- 
alysis by  V.  S.  Yarros,  is  not  a  revolutionist;  he 
does  not  think  of  overthrowing  the  present  social 
and  economic  system.  He  does  not  object  to  the 
wage  system,  nor  to  property  being  held  by  indi- 
viduals. 

He  asks  for  more  pay,  shorter  hours,  and  safer 
and  healthier  conditions  of  work.  He  will  always 
be  making  these  three  requests.  He  wants  more 
and  more  pay,  for  the  same  reason  that  the  capi- 
talist always  wants  more  dividends.  He  urges  short- 
er and  shorter  hours,  for  he  sees  many  people  no 
more  worthy  than  himself  who  are  not  working  at 
all,  but  living  luxuriously  and  as  it  seems  to  him  at 
his  expense.  He  will  always  possess  a  desire  for 
better  conditions  of  labor,  because  he  feels  that  he 
is  entitled  to  a  share  in  the  advances  that  are  being 
registered  by  inventions  and  discoveries. 

The  moderate  trade  unionist  has  been  described 
as  having  no  Utopian  schemes,  as  dealing  with  im- 
mediate problems,  as  priding  himself  on  his  reason- 
ableness and  practicality,  as  believing  in  private 
capital  if  it  is  not  used  as  an  instrument  of  special 
privilege,  and  as  protesting  against  the  prejudices, 
the  lack  of  sympathy  and  comprehension,  and  the 


THE  OCCUPATIONAL  GROUP  189 

distrust  shown  by  the  capitalist.  On  the  other 
hand  he  has  often  created  a  trade  union  autocracy 
and  personified  the  spirit  of  selfishness  and  narrow 
class  control. 

Sociology  believes  in  the  principle  of  "come,  let 
us  reason  together,"  and  in  methods  of  adjudicating 
differences  by  discussing  them  frankly,  and  in  a 
friendly  manner.  It  believes  that  labor  and  cap- 
ital have  the  same  right  to  organize,  and  that  the 
representatives  of  organized  labor  have  the  same 
right  to  a  fair  hearing  as  have  the  representatives 
of  organized  capital. 

Sociology  does  not  approve  of  the  selfishness, 
arbitrariness  and  desire  for  class  control  of  either 
unionists  or  capitalists.  It  does  not  excuse  union 
labor  in  its  schemes  of  using  dynamite;  neither  does 
it  condone  organized  capital  in  its  schemes  of  stock- 
watering,  and  speculating  in  the  necessities  of  life. 
It  agrees  with  Abraham  Lincoln  who  said  in  his 
first  presidential  address  to  Congress:  "Labor  is 
the  superior  of  capital,  and  deserves  much  the 
higher  consideration." 

3.  Child  Labor.  Every  child  should  have  regular 
work  to  do,  as  well  as  opportunity  to  play.  Chil- 
dren however  should  not  enter  gainful  occupations 
for  full  time  employment  at  an  age  which  precludes 
their  normal  development.  Since  the  introduction 
of  the  factory  system,  children  have  been  employed 


190  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

at  regular  work  eight,  ten,  or  twelve  hours  a  day 
while  still  at  the  beginning  of  their  adolescence.  The 
industries  which  according  to  recent  reports  em- 
ploy children  at  too  early  an  age  are  cotton  manu- 
facture, silk  manufacture,  glass  manufacture,  ag- 
riculture, the  canneries,  the  sweated  clothing  trades, 
the  street  trades,  and  mining. 

The  costs  of  child  labor  are  heavy.  ( 1 )  The  effect 
upon  bodily  growth  and  physical  development  is 
serious.  Child  labor  operates  against  a  symmetri- 
cal development  of  strength,  vigor,  and  substantial 
healthfulness.  It  generally  causes  a  one-sided  de- 
velopment of  the  body,  or  the  over-use  of  certain 
muscles  at  the  expense  of  others  scarcely  developed 
at  all.  (2)  The  boy  who  begins  work  in  industry 
at  an  early  age  will  have  a  total  earning  power 
much  less  than  that  of  the  youth  who  does  not  begin 
his  working  life  until  he  is  physically  developed. 
A  boy  who  enters  industry  at  twelve  or  fourteen 
years  of  age  suffers  an  early  depletion  of  his  physi- 
cal powers  and  the  shortening  of  the  working  period 
of  life. 

(3)  The  boy  or  girl  who  goes  to  work  in  industry 
is  debarred  from  completing  a  needed  education; 
his  educational  period  is  cut  short,  and  his  full  pow- 
ers are  never  developed.  Although  occasionally  a 
boy  overcomes  the  handicaps  and  becomes  a  suc- 
cessful business  man,  it  is  safe  to  say  that  a  large 
majority  of  working  boys  and  girls  are  kept  from 


THE  OCCUPATIONAL  GROUP  191 

successful  careers  because  of  early  deprivation  of 
educational  advantages.  (4)  It  has  been  found  that 
delinquency  is  from  two  to  four  times  as  high 
among  working  boys  as  among  boys  regularly  at- 
tending school.  The  working  child  often  falls  in 
with  the  rougher  type  of  unskilled  and  casual  labor, 
and  acquires  harmful  information ;  his  companions 
influence  him  in  vicious  ways.  He  has  money  to 
spend,  and  therefore  does  not  feel  a  full  sense  of  re- 
sponsibility to  parental  control.  He  comes  often 
from  a  broken  home  or  from  a  home  where  poverty 
rules. 

The  causes  of  unfavorable  child  labor  conditions 
are  numerous.  (1)  The  greed  of  ignorant  parents  is 
an  outstanding  factor.  Many  parents  among  both 
the  foreign  born  and  native  born  still  consider  their 
growing  children  as  economic  assets  from  which 
financial  returns  in  the  form  of  wages  may  be  im- 
mediately received.  The  idea  once  prevailed  that 
the  larger  the  number  of  children  in  the  family,  the 
larger  the  family  income  might  grow  as  a  result  of 
putting  the  children  into  gainful  employments  at 
an  early  age.  Boys  on  the  farm  have  often  been 
taken  out  of  school  because  of  their  capacity  to 
labor,  but  at  the  expense  of  a  needed  education. 

(2)  Although  many  boys  and  girls  are  employed, 
even  when  their  parents  enjoy  a  reasonable  stand- 
ard of  living,  it  is  known  that  perhaps  thirty  per 
cent  of  gainfully  employed  children  belong  to  fam- 


192  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

ily  groups  which  are  definitely  suffering  from  eco- 
nomic pressure.  The  accompanying  table,  prepared 
from  a  United  States  government  report  on  women 
and  child  wage  earners,  shows  the  relation  between 
economic  necessity  and  other  causes : 

TABLE  I 
CAUSES  OF  CHILD  LABOR 

1.  Economic   necessity  30.0  per  cent 

2.  Unnecessary  parental  demands  27.9 

3.  Child's  dissatisfaction  with  school  26.6       "     " 

4.  Child's  anxiety  to  work  9.8      "     " 

5.  Other  causes  5.7 

(3)  The  child's  attitude  is  significant.    For  va- 
rious reasons,  sometimes  his  own  shortsightedness, 
and  sometimes  the  school's  inflexibility,  he  becomes 
dissatisfied  with  school  life  and  seeks  work.    Many 
children  discontinue  school  despite  protests  of  par- 
ents.    Boys  are  prone  to  develop  a  spirit  of  inde- 
pendence and  become  anxious  to  demonstrate  their 
working  capacity.    The  impulse  grows  because  the 
boy  has  friends  who  are  earning  money  and  boast- 
ing about  it.  Few  experiences  thrill  a  boy  more  than 
the  first  wages  he  receives. 

(4)  The  attitude  of  the  employer  is  responsible 
for  much  child  labor.    His  responsibility  rests  first 
upon  the  fact  that  he  willingly  accepts  or  invites 


THE  OCCUPATIONAL  GROUP  193 

children.  By  so  doing  he  encourages  the  tendency 
of  parents  and  of  child  workers  in  their  willingness 
1;o  continue  the  evils  of  child  labor. 

(5)  The  rise  of  the  factory  system  with  its  minute 
subdivision  of  labor  has  made  it  possible  to  separate 
the  lighter  forms  of  labor  from  the  more  difficult, 
and  thus  to  encourage  the  employment  of  children. 
Many  types  of  work  have  developed,  as  in  the  cot- 
ton mills  and  the   glass    factories,   which   require 
chiefly  time,  and  running  to  and  fro,  and  hence 
have  been  assigned  to  children.    Again,  modern  im- 
provements have  made  certain  types  of  machines 
i>b  nearly  automatic  that  boys  and  even  girls  can 
operate  them;  thus  adolescents  are  often  substituted 
for  adults. 

(6)  The  public  must  bear  a  large  share  of  the 
responsibility  for  the  existence  of  child  labor,  be- 
cuuse  it  can  eliminate  much  of  the  evil  by  seriously 
opposing  the  practice.    The  public  is  thoughtlessly 
willing  to  permit  child  labor  for  the  purpose  of 
sv  Jf-support  of  dependent  parents  and  of  the  child ; 
it  does  not  appreciate  the  necessity  of  seeking  eco- 
nomic means  of  relief  for  the  child  or  the  parents. 
The  public  does  not  fully  recognize  the  ultimate 
effects  of  premature  child  labor. 

Child  labor  legislation  is  gaining  ground.  The 
most  advanced  child  labor  laws  in  the  United  States 
are  found  in  the  north  and  west,  while  the  weakest 
and  least  satisfactory  exist  in  the  southern  and  cot- 


194  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

ton  mill  states.  Several  northern  states,  however, 
have  been  compelled  to  fight  bitterly  for  progressive 
legislation,  especially  such  states  as  Pennsylvania. 
These  laws  relate  either  positively  or  negatively  to 
eight  points,  namely :  (1)  One  of  the  vital  consider- 
ations in  a  child  labor  law  is  the  age  limit  below 
which  gainful  employment  is  prohibited.  (2)  The 
physical  qualifications  need  to  be  put  high,  in  order 
properly  to  safeguard  the  health  of  the  child.  (3) 
Educational  requirements  protect  the  child's  mental 
development,  outlook  upon  life,  and  usefulness  as 
a  citizen.  (4)  The  number  of  hours  of  labor  a  day 
constitutes  a  health  as  well  as  an  economic  and  so- 
cial question.  (5)  Night  work  is  unjustifiable,  be- 
cause of  the  natural  abnormality.  (6)  It  is  nec- 
essary to  require  working  papers  or  certificates  of 
children  between  fourteen  and  sixteen  or  eighteen 
years  of  age,  as  a  means  of  protecting  them  against 
unscrupulous  employers.  (7)  It  is  vital  that  chil- 
dren be  safeguarded  from  hazardous  occupations. 
(8)  The  exemptions  which  are  made  in  agricultural 
or  canning  factory  work  may  easily  come  to  con- 
stitute a  rule  rather  than  exceptions,  and  entail 
wholesale  losses  upon  children.  (9)  Legislation  re- 
garding street  trades  requires  special  attention  be- 
cause of  a  misinformed  public  attitude,  which  as- 
sumes that  a  little  child  selling  newspapers  on  a 
dangerous  street  and  running  wild  in  unsuper- 
vised  alleys  infested  by  older  boys  of  a  vicious 


THE  OCCUPATIONAL  GROUP  195 

nature  is  representative  of  an  ideal  situation.  (10) 
The  welfare  of  business  and  industry  is  being  shifted 
to  include  the  welfare  of  adolescent  and  other  imma- 
ture employees  as  a  primary  consideration. 

Children  are  the  citizens  of  tomorrow;  they  are 
entitled  to  a  full  and  balanced  development  of  all 
their  talents,  an  education  inculcating  the  highest 
principles  of  self-control  dedicated  to  unselfish  ser- 
vice. In  their  occupational  outlooks  they  are  en- 
titled to  a  set  of  thoroughly  wholesome,  creative, 
and  social  attitudes. 


196  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

PROBLEMS 

1.  What  is  labor? 

2.  What  is  an  occupation? 

3.  Why  should  everyone  work? 

4.  Should  labor  organize? 

5.  Is  collective  bargaining  justifiable? 

6.  Why  was  there  no  such  gulf  between  the  laboring  and 

employing  classes  two  centuries  ago  as  exists  today? 

7.  What  are  the  grounds  for  legislating  in  behalf  of  laboring 

men? 

8.  What  are  blind  alley  jobs? 

9.  Who  is  the  chief  gainer  from  child  labor?     The  chief 

loser? 

10.  Explain:  Child  labor  is  child  robbery. 

11.  Why  does  an  adolescent  boy  have  strong  desires  for 

earning  money? 

12.  Explain:  The  newsboy  needs  your  protection,  not  your 

patronage. 

13.  Why  is  the  accident  rate  for  children  in  industry  higher 

than  for  adults? 

14.  How  can  you  personally  help   in  solving  child  labor 

problems  ? 

15.  What  is  the  best  test  of  a  successful  worker? 

16.  Make  out  a  minimum  budget  for  a  workingman  and 

his  family  including  a  wife  and  three  children. 

17.  Does  anyone  in  this  country  earn  more  than  the  Pres- 

ident and  hence  should  he  receive  a  larger  income? 

18.  Should  anyone  be  paid  as  much  as  he  earns? 


CHAPTER  X 

THE  OCCUPATIONAL  GROUP 

(Continued) 

4.  Women  in  Industry.  The  rapidity  with  which 
women  have  entered  industry  in  the  United  States 
since  the  close  of  the  Civil  War  has  been  amazing. 
The  number  of  women  and  of  girls  over  ten  years  of 
age  who  are  in  gainful  employments  passed  the  ten 
million  mark  about  1912.  Women  in  large  numbers 
are  working  for  wages  in  ( 1 )  the  textile  and  cloth- 
ing trades,  (2)  the  metal  trades,  (3)  agriculture, 
(4)  household  employment,  (5)  mercantile  estab- 
lishments, and  (6)  miscellaneous  employments, 
such  as  is  represented  by  telephone  operators,  cigar 
makers,  paper  box  manufacturers,  and  laundry 
workers. 

The  leading  problems  which  have  arisen  from 
the  employment  of  women  in  industry  will  now  be 
analyzed.  ( 1 )  It  has  been  demonstrated  many  times 
that  one  of  the  saddest  chapters  in  human  history 
is  connected  with  the  fact  that  the  machine  which 
man  invented  to  relieve  him  of  labor  and  to  produce 
economic  values  more  rapidly  has  led  to  the  factory 
system  of  labor,  and  that  women  and  children  are 
forced  to  follow  their  work  to  the  factory.  "The 


198  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

machine,"  continues  W.  I.  Thomas,  "which  was  in- 
vented to  save  human  energy  and  which  is  so  great 
,1  boon  when  the  individual  controls  it,  is  a  terrible 
thing  when  it  controls  the  individual.  Power-driven, 
it  has  almost  no  limit  whatever  to  its  endurance, 
and  it  has  no  nerves.  When,  therefore,  the  machine 
is  speeded  up  and  the  girl  operating  it,  is  speeded  up 
to  its  pace,  we  have  finally  a  situation  in  which  the 
machine  destroys  the  worker." 

(2)  Then  there  is  the  question  of  long  hours, 
overtime,  and  overfatigue.  Eight  hours  of  labor  for 
women  in  industry  is  recognized  as  a  long  enough 
day.  A  day  longer  than  eight  hours  is  likely  to 
cause  harmful  results  to  the  physical  and  mental 
organism  of  woman.  When  subjected  to  long  hours 
of  industrial  labor  for  years,  women  are  likely  to 
become  low  grade  mothers.  Their  children  suffer, 
and  both  mother  and  child  are  subjected  to  the 
danger  of  nervous  and  physical  breakdown. 

The  girl  who  goes  rapidly  through  the  routine 
processes  of  wrapping  caramels  every  day,  or  who 
threads  the  almost  invisible  Tungsten  filament 
through  a  tiny  hole  at  the  rate  of  three  every  minute, 
or  one  thousand  a  day,  or  who  operates  an  elec- 
tric sewing  machine  that  carries  ten  needles  sew- 
ing ten  seams  at  a  speed  so  fast  that  the  needles  are 
ten  streaks  of  light,  this  girl  becomes  less  than  hu- 
man, unfit  to  be  a  mother  and  a  citizen. 

Overfatigue  represents  the  most  subtle  effect  of 


THE  OCCUPATIONAL  GROUP  199 

occupational  activity;  it  affects  women  employed 
even  more  seriously  than  it  does  men,  and  hence  is 
considered  here  rather  than  in  the  preceding 
chapter.  It  is  also  a  serious  factor  in  the  child 
labor  situation. 

Overfatigue  may  be  considered  as  the  result  of  a 
chemical  process.  In  consequence  there  is  danger 
of  producing  a  continual  tearing  down  of  muscle 
and  nerve  tissues,  without  an  adequate  building  up 
of  the  same.  In  this  way  fatigue  substances  or  tox- 
ins may  circulate  in  the  blood,  poisoning  brain  and 
neural  system,  muscles,  glands,  and  other  organs. 

The  results  of  overfatigue  are  many,  (a)  Over- 
fatigue  causes  industrial  inefficiency.  As  a  rule, 
poorer  and  less  work  is  done  in  the  last  hours  of  a 
long  day's  work  than  in  the  earlier  hours. 

(b)  Overfatigue  causes  industrial  accidents.    In 
general,  the  liability  to  accidents  increases  with  the 
passing  of  the  hours  of  the  day.    After  studying  a 
large  number  of  industrial  accidents,  the  writer  has 
found  that  for  9,000  accidents  which  occur  in  the 
second  hour  of  work,  12,000  occur  in  the(  third 
hour,  and  approximately  15,000  in  the  fourth  hour. 
The  increase  of  3,000  accidents  in  the  third  hour, 
and  of  6,000  in  the  fourth  hour  over  the  number 
of  accidents  in  the  second,  represents  in  mathemat- 
ical terms  fairly  well  the  extent  to  which  fatigue 
causes  accidents. 

(c)  Overfatigue  assists  the  advance  of  disease, 


200  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

especially  of  a  contagious  disease.  An  overworked 
person  is  more  susceptible  to  pneumonia,  tubercu- 
losis, and  typhoid  fever  than  is  one  whose  vital 
resistance  is  normal.  With  fatigue  toxins  in  the 
body,  the  organism  is  seriously,  often  fatally  hand- 
icapped in  meeting  the  invasion  of  pathogenic  bac- 
teria. A  not  uncommon  succession  of  events  is, 
first,  overfatigue;  then  "colds";  then  pneumonia 
or  tuberculosis;  then,  death. 

(d)  Overfatigue    accentuates    nervous    diseases. 
Long  hours  of  work  at  a  feverish  pace  lead  to  ner- 
vous breakdown.    Unscrupulous  employers  who  are 
abusing  the  principles  of  scientific  management  are 
guilty  of  turning  many   of  their    employees    into 
lightning-like  machines.     The  neural  system,  not 
built  for  such  a  pace,  breaks  down  after  a  time. 

(e)  Future  generations  will  suffer  from  the  fa- 
tigue of  the  present  generation.     The  children  of 
perennially  tired  parents  are  in  danger  of  being 
physical  weaklings. 

(f)  Fatigue  often  has  an  untoward  effect  upon 
the  morals  of  working  people.    It  increases  human 
susceptibility  to  temptation,  causes  a  person  to  turn 
almost  anywhere  for  relaxation,  and  leads  him  to 
neglect  his  own  welfare  and  that  of  his  family  as 
well. 

(3)  The  question  of  wages  is  significant.  While 
some  girls  can  afford  to  work  for  low  wages,  inas- 
much as  their  need  is  for  "pin  money,"  the  large 


THE  OCCUPATIONAL  GROUP  201 

percentage  are  supporting  themselves  or  others. 
Since  the  majority  must  compete  with  the  girl  who 
works  for  "pin  money,"  they  are  sometimes  com- 
pelled to  accept  less  wages  than  they  earn.  Low 
wages  may  lead  not  only  to  physical  suffering,  but 
also  to  moral  danger.  Mary  Van  Kleeck  is  the  au- 
thority for  the  statement  that  low  wages  have  made 
thousands  of  girls  practically  defenseless. 

(4)  There  is  a  comparative  lack  of  ambition  on 
the  part  of  many  working  girls  and  women  to  attain 
high  industrial  efficiency  or  to  advance  above  cer- 
tain levels.    This  attitude  is  due  partly  to  the  "I 
should  worry"  spirit  of  the  times,  and  partly  to  the 
expectation  of  marriage. 

(5)  To  the  extent  that  the   wife   and   children 
enter  industry,  the  wages  of  the  husband  and  father 
are  thereby  reduced.    There  is  much  evidence  to 
show  that  the  income  of  the  male  wage-earner  when 
working  alone  is  as  great  as  the  combined  wages  of 
the  man  himself,  his  wife,  and  the  children,  when 
the  wife  and  children  enter  into  industry  in  com- 
petition with  the  male  wage-earner.    The  composite 
wage  of  all  the  members  of  the  family  is  not  likely 
to  exceed  the  income  of  the  male  wage  earner  when 
einployed  alone. 

(6)  The  employment  of  married  women  in  in- 
dustry has  serious  phases.    Several  years  ago  in  the 
United  States  the  number  of  married  women  gain- 
fully employed  passed  the  one  million  mark.   To  an 


202  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

extent  these  facts  mean  that  homes  and  especially 
young  children  are  neglected. 

(7)  Another  vexatious  problem  is  that  of  organ- 
izing women  in  industry.     Some  decades  ago,  the 
members  of  men's  labor  unions  refused  to  admit 
women  to  the  unions.     Today  a  changed  attitude 
exists;  men's  unions  now  try  to  induce  women  to 
organize,  to  ask  collectively  for  higher  wages  and 
for  better  living  conditions — and  thus  not  to  com- 
pete against  men. 

There  are  great  difficulties  in  the  matter  of  or- 
ganizing women  in  industry.  Large  numbers 
of  them  are  only  temporarily  employed ;  they  have 
simply  a  temporary  interest  in  the  conditions  of 
their  work.  The  majority  are  under  twenty-five 
years  of  age ;  they  are  not  as  seriously  interested  in 
improving  the  conditions  of  their  work  as  they 
would  be  if  they  were  older.  Another  difficulty  is 
that  there  are  relatively  few  good  leaders  among 
women  wage-earners. 

(8)  The  two  leading  methods  of  improving  the 
working  conditions  of  women  in  industry  are  legis- 
lation and  education.     In  many  countries  legisla- 
tion has  been  passed  providing  for  shorter  hours  and 
better  wages.    Such  legislation  is  essential,  not  onjy 
for  women  employees,  but  also  for  the  employer 
who  desires  efficient  workers  in  order  to  protect 
him  against  the  successful  underbidding  of  unscrup- 
ulous competitors.    Minimum  wage  legislation  was 


THE  OCCUPATIONAL  GROUP  203 

first  passed  in  1894  in  New  Zealand.  It  spread  to 
England  in  1910,  and  then  to  various  states  in  this 
country.  On  the  whole,  it  is  working  well. 

The  educational  method  of  improving  the  condi- 
tions of  women  in  industry  applies  to  three  groups. 
Employers  need  to  be  trained  to  a  full  sense  of  re- 
sponsibility relative  to  the  welfare  of  employees 
and  the  conditions  under  which  they  work.  Women 
and  girls  should  know  what  conditions  they  may 
reasonably  expect,  and  be  trained  to  organize,  even 
as  capital  organized,  in  order  to  secure  for  them- 
selves at  least  the  minimum  essentials  of  living,  of 
family  obligations,  and  of  industrial  and  public 
welfare.  The  public  in  turn  must  have  a  keen  sense 
of  what  constitutes  full  economic  and  social  justice. 

5.  Dangerous  Occupations  and  Unemployment. 
The  approximate  number  of  fatal  industrial  acci- 
dents among  wage-earners  in  the  United  States  has 
been  about  25,000  a  year  for  several  years  past.  The 
number  of  non-fatal  but  serious  industrial  accidents 
involving  a  disability  of  two  or  more  weeks  has 
averaged  about  one  million  a  year.  The  most  dan- 
gerous general  industry  is  that  of  mining ;  naviga- 
tion and  railroad  transportation  are  also  high  in 
the  list.  There  follow  occupations,  such  as 
electrical  work,  quarrying,  lumbering,  building,  and 
draying. 

According  to  John  B.  Andrews,  industry  maims 


204  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

more  men  than  war  ever  did.  H.  R.  Seager  has 
pointed  out  that  the  United  States  has  shown  a  larg- 
er proportion  of  industrial  accidents  on  its  railroads 
and  in  its  mines  and  factories  than  any  other  civi- 
lized land.  Industry,  says  G.  L.  Campbell,  is  doub- 
ly wasteful  of  life  and  efficiency.  "It  may  be  charged 
not  only  with  the  extravagance  of  killing  and 
maiming  yearly  thousands  of  workers,  but  it  seems 
to  choose  for  its  victims  many  persons  in  the  prime 
of  manhood,  normally  with  years  of  life  before 
them,  and  with  obligations  but  partly  discharged 
to  wives  and  children  .  .  .  It  is  evident  that  the 
victims  are  usually  young  men,  that  the  majority 
of  them  have  families,  and  that  the  standard  of 
living  of  these  families  is  greatly  lowered  by  losses 
due  to  injuries.  The  tale  of  industrial  accidents  is 
at  best  a  tale  of  destitution,  blighted  hopes,  and  ar- 
rested development." 

Occupational  diseases  are  common;  they  consist 
of  those  diseases  which  are  caused  directly  by  the 
nature  of  the  occupation  in  which  the  wage-earner 
is  working,  such  as  lead  poisoning,  caisson  disease, 
or  even  tuberculosis.  The  worker  himself  may  be 
quite  ignorant  of  such  sickness-producing  condi- 
tions. The  employer  may  be  only  slightly  interested 
in  the  welfare  of  the  employees,  and  neglect  to 
protect  them  against  danger.  In  some  cases  the 
poisonous  character  of  the  materials  used  produces 
diseases,  for  example,  in  the  printing  trades,  in 


THE  OCCUPATIONAL  GROUP  205 

plumbing,  and  in  making  phosphorous  matches. 
The  poison  seeps  into  the  human  organism  day  by 
day,  and  in  time  becomes  a  main  cause  or  a  leading 
secondary  cause  of  disease.  An  amount  of  dust, 
especially  of  coal  dust  or  steel  dust,  in  the  air  where 
men  work  produces  disease  by  lacerating  the  lungs 
and  making  them  subject  to  bacterial  invasions. 

Again,  sudden  changes  in  temperature,  as  is  the 
case  with  steel  workers  in  entering  and  leaving  the 
furnace  rooms,  cause  disease.  Men  who  work  in 
caissons  pass  in  a  few  minutes  from  normal  air 
pressure  to  air  pressure  three  times  or  possibly  four 
times  the  normal,  and  then  at  the  close  of  work  re- 
turn to  normal  air  pressure  again.  Such  experiences 
day  after  day  are  disease-producing.  Many  occu- 
pations therefore  kill  and  maim  not  only  by  sudden 
processes  but  also  by  slow,  subtle  ones.  The  related 
questions  of  accident  compensation  and  sickness  in- 
surance will  be  presented  in  the  next  chapter. 

Unemployment  for  short  or  long  periods  of  time 
is  an  occupational  problem.  In  many  industries 
there  are  rush  and  slack  seasons.  During  the  latter, 
many  workers  are  laid  off  for  several  weeks  or  given 
part-time  work. 

In  the  mining  industry,  for  example,  the  mines 
are  closed  at  least  one-fifth  of  the  time,  due  to 
storms,  accidents,  breaking  of  machinery,  and 
strikes.  Trade  union  statistics  show  that  skilled 
workers  are  unemployed  sometimes  as  high  as  twen- 


206  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

ty-five  and  thirty  per  cent  of  a  given  year. 

There  are  two  classes  of  the  unemployed:  one 
class  is  composed  of  those  who  would  work  but 
cannot  find  it;  the  other  class  is  marked  by  a  lack 
of  desire  to  work.  The  fluctuations  in  the  demand 
for  economic  goods,  the  changes  in  the  seasons  with 
the  coming  of  the  dull  periods,  and  similar  factors 
cause  many  thousands  to  be  thrown  out  of  employ- 
ment annually.  Then  there  are  the  persons  who 
do  not  want  to  work  regularly  or  who  do  not  want 
to  work  at  all.  Many  of  these  are  wholly  respon- 
sible for  their  attitudes;  others,  only  partly  so. 
Many  men  start  out  in  life  with  a  keen  desire  to 
work  and  earn  money,  but  become  temporarily  un- 
employed, start  to  live  from  hand  to  mouth,  and 
then  acquire  habits  of  idleness  and  unsteadiness. 

It  may  be  said  that  unemployment  is  a  national 
problem;  there  is  need  for  a  national  commission 
and  national  policies.  The  government  might  save 
large  national  labor  projects  for  times  of  national 
depression.  If  states  or  provinces,  counties,  and 
municipalities  could  and  would  do  likewise,  a  large 
measure  of  unemployment  would  be  alleviated. 
Since  every  month  of  the  year  has  its  busy  seasons 
for  some  industries  and  its  dull  seasons  for  other 
industries,  a  rotation  might  be  devised  for  shifting 
employees  in  the  dull  seasons  of  certain  industries 
to  the  industries  which  are  experiencing  rush  orders. 

Such  a  program  involves  the  establishment  of 


THE  OCCUPATIONAL  GROUP  207 

free  national  employment  bureaus.  For  the  per- 
sons whom  the  bureaus  could  not  place,  trade 
schools  could  be  provided,  enabling  the  temporarily 
unemployed  persons  to  improve  in  skill  and  become 
master  of  more  than  one  trade.  As  an  educational 
venture  the  nation  would  find  such  a  program  eco- 
nomically and  patriotically  worth  while.  No  nation 
can  afford  to  have  a  large  unemployed  class  remain- 
ing idle.  If  a  man  refused  work,  or  refused  educa- 
tional training,  he  should  be  sent  to  a  detention 
farm  where  he  would  be  put  to  agricultural  and 
other  work  and  subjected  to  reformatory  influences. 

In  these  ways  a  large  percentage  of  the  unemploy- 
ment problem  would  be  solved.  Everybody  would 
either  be  working,  or  if  out  of  work,  would  not  be 
lying  around  acquiring  disintegrating  habits,  but 
could  secure  school  and  trade  training,  or  if 
refusing  the  latter  opportunity,  would  be  placed 
under  the  reforming  influences  of  an  agricultural 
detention  farm.  Such  a  plan,  which  was  first  de- 
veloped in  England  by  Sidney  and  Beatrice  Webb, 
might  be  modified  to  meet  conditions  in  other  coun- 
tries as  well. 

Another  group  of  unemployed  are  the  idle  rich. 
These  constitute  nationally  an  even  graver  problem 
than  the  idle  poor,  because  they  consume  heavily 
and  divert  production  into  ths  field  of  luxuries  and 
from  the  field  of  necessities,  thus  decreasing  the  supr 
ply  of  the  latter  and  increasing  the  prices  of  these 


208  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

necessities.  The  idle  rich,  moreover,  feel  themselves 
superior  to  the  man  who  works  for  a  living  and  thus 
develop  into  an  aristocracy  of  spendthrifts. 

6.  Poverty.  A  failure  to  engage  in  an  occupation, 
except  in  the  case  of  the  hereditarily  rich,  leads  to 
poverty.  Adults  who  are  unable  to  provide  for 
their  own  needs  for  a  length  of  time  represent  a 
state  of  poverty. 

A  classification  •  of  people  into  four  economic 
groups  has  been  made  by  W.  I.  King.  The  first 
group  is  composed  of  persons  who  own  property  to 
the  extent  of  $50,000,  or  more.  If  they  choose,  they 
may  live  mainly  on  the  income  from  their  property. 
The  upper  middle  class  includes  the  well-to-do,  pos- 
sessing property  valued  from  $2,000  to  $50,000.  Al- 
though they  derive  a  share  of  their  income  from  in- 
vestments, they  are  also  dependent  upon  their  own 
exertions. 

The  lower  middle  class  consists  of  those  persons 
who  possess  a  small  amount  of  property,  valued 
from  $1,000  to  $2,000.  This  amount  yields  them 
no  noticeable  income,  but  is  sufficient  to  help  tide 
them  over  in  times  of  emergency.  The  remaining 
group,  the  poor,  possess  little  property,  chiefly  fur- 
niture, clothing,  and  other  personal  belongings, 
ranging  in  value  from  a  few  dollars  to  several  hun- 
dred dollars. 

According  to  this  classification  the  rich  constitute 
two  per  cent  of  the  population  of  the  United  States ; 


THE  OCCUPATIONAL  GROUP  209 

the  upper  middle  class,  eighteen  per  cent  of  the  pop- 
ulation of  the  United  States ;  the  lower  middle  class, 
fifteen  per  cent;  and  the  poor  comprise  a  startling 
percentage,  namely ,  sixty-five  per  cent  of  the  total 
population.  The  rich  two  per  cent  possess  about 
sixty  per  cent  of  the  wealth  of  the  entire  country; 
the  upper  middle  class,  fifteen  per  cent  of  the  total 
wealth;  and  the  poor,  constituting  sixty-five  per 
cent  and  over  65,000,000  people  possess  the  remain- 
ing five  per  cent  of  the  wealth.  Although  Dr.  King's 
estimates  were  made  some  years  ago  the  relative 
percentages  have  not  suffered  material  change. 

The  causes  of  poverty  may  be  placed  under  three 
main  headings :  (1)  poor  heredity,  (2)  poor  habits 
of  the  individual,  and  (3)  an  unfavorable  environ- 
ment. (1)  A  poor  heredity  refers  to  the  inheritance 
of  subnormal  physical  and  mental  traits;  for  ex- 
ample, a  child  may  be  born  mentally  defective. 

(2)  The  second  set  of  causes  of  poverty  are  those 
which  relate  to  the  habits  of  the  individual,  (a)  In 
many  countries  intemperance  enters  into  many 
cases  of  low  standards  of  living.  In  the  days  of 
the  saloon  in  the  United  States,  about  twenty  per 
cent  of  all  cases  of  poverty  were  probably  due  to 
intemperance.  The  passage  of  the  eighteenth 
amendment  to  the  Constitution  shifted  intemper- 
ance away  from  the  classes  of  low  economic  stand- 
ards, (b)  Sexual  vice  is  believed  to  be  a  more  seri- 
ous cause  of  inefficiency  than  intemperance,  (c) 


210  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

The  gambling  spirit  ruins  many  a  speculator,  (d) 
Incapacity  to  judge  wisely,  often  expressed  in  the 
form  of  pure  blundering,  keeps  many  wage-earners 
in  the  poverty  class.  This  incapacity  may  be  due 
to  a  lack  of  educational  opportunity,  or  to  a  poor  he- 
redity, (e)  Shiftlessness  is  another  common  cause; 
the  "I  should  worry"  spirit  of  the  wealthy  classes 
has  permeated  the  lower  economic  ranks,  (f)  A 
weak  will  power  is  a  closely  related  individual  cause 
of  poverty. 

(3)  The  objective  or  environing  causes  are  nu- 
merous, (a)  Changes  in  methods  of  work  have 
caused  large  numbers  of  laborers  to  be  thrown  out 
of  employment;  for  example,  when  the  linotype 
was  introduced,  numerous  type-setters  were  dis- 
placed, and  were  without  a  trade. 

(b)  Industrial  accidents  are  a  leading  cause  of 
a  low  income.  When  25,000  wage-earners  are  killed 
annually  in  a  country,  and  1,000,000  others  are 
seriously  injured  while  at  work,  the  loss  in  income 
to  families  must  be  high.  A  large  amount  of  per- 
sonal capacity  is  also  destroyed,  (c)  The  illness 
and  premature  death  of  the  wage-earner  is  a  cause 
of  poverty.  A  definite  percentage  of  poverty,  perhaps 
fifteen,  is  due  to  preventable  illness  or  premature 
death,  aside  from  cases  caused  by  industrial  acci- 
dents. Occupational  diseases  fall  three  and  four 
times  more  he.avi.ly  on  wage-earners  than  on  the 
professional  classes,  not  only  in  the  number  of  days 


THE  OCCUPATIONAL  GROUP  211 

of  sickness  and  suffering  per  year,  but  also  in  loss 
of  income. 

(d)  Child  labor  is  another  cause  of  low  or  insuffi- 
cient wages.  The  youth  works  for  less  wages  than 
the  adult.  If  there  is  competition  between  the  boy 
and  the  adult,  the  latter  must  work  for  less  pay  than 
he  would  do  otherwise,  or  lose  his  job.  Further- 
more, the  boy  who  goes  to  work  early  may  become 
stunted  in  both  body  and  mind;  he  may  suffer  ac- 
cident ;  his  education  is  hampered ;  and  he  is  likely 
to  be  doomed  to  work  in  the  low-wage  class. 


PROBLEMS 

1.  Is  the  presence  of  women  in  industry  to  be  encouraged  or 

discouraged? 

2.  Why  do  women  go  into  industrial  occupations? 

3.  What  are  the  effects  upon  the  home  of  the  employ- 

ment of  women  in  industry? 

4.  Why  are  state  factory  inspectors  often  negligent,  even 

though  the  lives  of  girls   and  women  depend  upon 
adequate  inspection  of  factory  conditions? 

5.  What  are  the  main  arguments  for  the  eight  hour  day 

for  women? 

6.  What  are  the  main  arguments  for  a  minimum  wage? 

7.  What  factors  would  you  consider,  if  you  were  a  member 

of  a  wage  board  and  asked  to  determine  a  minimum 
wage  for  women  in  a  given  industry? 

8.  Should  equal  wages  be  paid  to  men  and  women  in  the 

same  occupation? 


212  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

9.  Make  out  a  minimum  budget  for  a  self  supporting  young 
woman  who  is  employed  in  a  department  store. 

10.  In  what  ways  is  society  responsible  for  industrial  ac- 

cidents ? 

11.  What  is  thrift? 

12.  Could  an  increased  degree  of  thrift  on  the  part  of  the 

working  classes  remove  their  prevailing  economic  in- 
security? 

13.  Is  the   miser   or  the   spendthrift  the   more  dangerous 

member  of  society? 

14.  Distinguish  between  poverty  and  pauperism. 

15.  Is   it  true  that   "abnormally   large   incomes   make   ab- 

normally small  ones"? 

16.  Why  do  some  people  do  charity  work  as  a  kind  of  sport? 

17.  Who  constitute  the  greater  social  problem,  the  idle  rich 

or  the  idle  poor?    Why? 

18.  Which  gives  the  severer  test  of  character,  wealth  or 

poverty  ? 


CHAPTER  XI 

THE  OCCUPATIONAL  GROUP 

(continued) 

7.  Capital  and  the  Corporate  Group.  The  use 
of  steam-driven  machinery  and  the  rise  of  the  fac- 
tory system  created  a  demand  for  large  units  of 
capital.  Hence,  today,  business  units  vary  greatly 
in  size.  Modern  business  is  conducted  either  (1) 
by  individual  entrepreneurs,  (2)  by  partnerships,  or 
(3)  by  the  corporate  organization  in  some  form. 
The  first  method  is  satisfactory  for  conducting 
small  enterprises ;  the  second  is  adequate  where  cap- 
ital on  a  somewhat  larger  scale  is  needed;  and  the 
corporate  form  is  by  far  the  most  important  type 
of  business  group  because  of  the  vast  power  that  it 
represents.  The  leading  lines  of  business  which 
have  adopted  the  corporate  form  of  organization  are 
banking,  insurance,  manufacture,  mercantile  enter- 
prises, and  transportation. 

Corporate  business  units  first  existed  independ- 
ently of  each  other.  Then  there  came  a  period  of 
competition,  of  cut-throat  competition,  as  it  was 
called.  When  it  became  apparent  that  competition 
between  business  units  in  the  same  field  was  dis- 
astrous, these  units  began  to  combine  into  larger 


214  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

groups.  One  of  the  earliest  types  of  combination 
was  represented  by  the  agreement  of  independent 
concerns  to  fix  prices,  and  hence  to  increase  profits 
by  restricting  competition.  The  next  step  was  the 
agreement  of  business  groups  to  divide  the  field; 
each  enterprise  contracted  to  limit  its  activity  to  a 
particular  section  of  the  field. 

A  third  phase  was  the  pool,  or  the  attempt  to 
restrict  the  output  rather  than  the  price  or  the  field. 
According  to  this  type  of  agreement,  each  member 
of  the  combination  accepted  an  allotted  percentage 
of  production.  Then  came  the  formation  of 
"trusts."  By  this  method,  each  of  the  constituent 
companies  turned  over  the  operation  of  its  respec- 
tive shares  of  the  business  to  a  board  of  central 
trustees,  and  in  turn  received  trust  certificates. 
Each  essentially  abandoned  to  the  "trust''  the  entire 
operation  of  the  given  business. 

The  "holding  corporation"  developed  as  a  com- 
mon successor  to  the  "trust."  In  this  connection  a 
new  central  corporation  was  formed  in  order  to 
purchase  a  majority  interest  of  the  stock  of  indi- 
vidual corporations.  Each  constituent  corporation 
was  operated  as  a  separate  unit.  The  control  rested 
largely  in  the  hands  of  the  parent  company.  The 
holding  corporation  was  the  "trust"  in  a  new  and 
more  effective  form. 

Then  the  so-called  system  of  "community  of  in- 
terests" developed.  By  this  method  the  same  group 


THE  OCCUPATIONAL  GROUP  215 

of  directors  possesses  a  controlling  voice  in  the  man- 
agement of  each  constituent  company.  It  is  ex- 
ceedingly difficult  to  prevent  combinations  of  this 
type  from  taking  place.  As  an  alternative,  strict 
government  control  is  being  tried  with  varying  suc- 
cess. Government  control,  however,  in  the  United 
States  has  been  inadequate  to  such  an  extent  that 
the  public  has  not  been  enthusiastic  over  it.  In 
European  countries,  however,  it  has  proved  a  suc- 
cess. 

Combinations  of  capital  result  in  the  elimination 
of  competitive  costs,  and  permit  the  undertaking 
of  vast  enterprises  extending  over  periods  of  time, 
with  the  result  that  the  small,  independent  producer 
generally  suffers.  The  corporate  group  becomes  im- 
personal, and  responsibility  is  difficult  to  locate. 
The  corporation  presents  a  solid  front  to  organized 
labor;  it  makes  persistent  attempts  to  control  tariff, 
taxation,  and  social  legislation.  It  is  a  powerful  and 
constructive  factor  in  matters  of  economic  advance, 
but  possessed  of  many  and  grave  social  evils.  In 
many  countries  it  has  ceased  to  be  respected  by  the 
common  people,  and  consequently  its  spcial  effi- 
ciency has  been  affected. 

8.  Socialism.  As  a  result  of  the  evils  which  have 
developed  in  connection  with  the  institutions  of 
private  property  and  the  corporate  group,  the  move- 
ment known  as  socialism  has  attained  such  world- 
wide prominence  as  to  call  for  consideration  by  all 


216  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

students  of  human  society.  In  general,  socialists 
are  opposed  to  the  use  of  private  property,  as  such, 
to  produce  more  private  property,  and  they  are  also 
hopeless  of  the  labor  union  method  of  appealing 
directly  to  the  employer.  When  the  latter,  repre- 
senting organized  capital,  refuses  to  meet  the  repre- 
sentatives of  organized  labor,  then  socialism  is  ad- 
vanced by  many  persons  as  the  only  worth  while 
method  for  meeting  the  needs  of  labor. 

The  socialist  makes  no  war  upon  capital,  as  such ; 
he  believes  in  capital,  providing  all  the  returns  go 
to  labor.  Instead  of  having  only  a  few  individuals 
reaping  the  returns  from  capital  and  land,  he  would 
have  both  owned  by  the  state,  and  managers  em- 
ployed by  the  state  to  operate  them — in  the  same 
manner  as  the  postal  service  is  governmentally 
owned  in  manv  countries. 

*/ 

Instead  of  the  returns  from  economic  enterprise 
being  divided  into  four  parts,  namely,  rent,  interest, 
profits,  and  wages,  the  socialist  urges  that  all  the 
returns  should  go  to  labor,  recognizing  gradations 
in  labor  sendee.  Since  land  would  be  owned 
by  the  state,  no  rent  would  need  to  be  paid,  and 
since  capital  would  be  state  owned,  no  interest 
would  be  charged.  Since  both  land  and  capital 
woujd  be  used  by  the  state  for  the  welfare  of  all  the 
people,  there  need  be  no  attempt  to  secure  "profits." 
Thus  all  the  returns  from  industrial  enterprise,  ac- 
cording to  the  socialist's  plan,  would  go  in  one  di- 


THE  OCCUPATIONAL  GROUP  217 

rection,  namely,  to  labor,  ranging  from  the  highest 
type  of  superintendence  and  managerial  labor  to 
unskilled  labor.  No  one  would  receive  an  income 
unless  he  worked ;  the  income  would  be  determined 
by  the  skill  or  managerial  ability  which  the  indi- 
vidual showed,  and  by  the  social  value  of  his  effort. 

The  socialist  does  not  believe  that  governmental 
regulation  of  the  gigantic  private  monopolies 
will  succeed.  He  contends  that  the  monopolies 
have  become  so  powerful  that  they  regulate  govern- 
ments, and  even  cause  wars.  The  alternative  is  for 
government  to  go  all  the  way  and  take  over  the 
large  private  businesses. 

There  are  several  types  of  socialists.  The  Marx- 
ian socialists,  like  Marx,  advocate  an  equal  dis- 
tribution of  wealth,  a  phrase  which  is  commonly 
misunderstood.  It  does  not  refer  to  the  equal  dis- 
tribution of  property  among  all  the  people,  but  a 
distribution  primarily  of  income  according  to  the 
service  rendered  or  the  work  accomplished.  Marx 
also  developed  the  class  struggle  idea — that  the 
struggle  between  the  laboring  classes  and  the  em- 
ploying classes  will  go  from  bad  to  worse  until  by 
revolutiona-ry  means  and  by  sheer  force  of  numbers 
the  laboring  classes  will  come  into  control  of  gov- 
ernments. State  socialism  involves  a  gradual  proc- 
ess, not  a  revolutionary  cataclysm,  whereby  the 
government  will  ultimately  own  all  the  large  in- 
dustries and  the  land.  The  Fabian  socialists  in 


218  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

England  place  primary  emphasis  upon  the  intellec- 
tual  method   of    spreading     socialistic     concepts 
rather  than  upon  working  out  an  organized  political 
movement.    The  Christian  socialists  find  the  basis 
of  their  beliefs  in  the  teachings  of  Jesus. 

The  strong  and  the  weak  points  of  socialism  will 
now  be  considered :  ( 1 )  Justice  is  a  strong  plea  of 
socialism.  It  cannot  be  claimed  today  to  control  so- 
ciety. The  ideal  of  socialism  is  to  see  that  everyone 
is  rewarded  in  proportion  to  his  services,  not  to  him- 
self, but  to  society.  Ours  is  a  form  of  economic  con- 
trol which  pays  one  man  a  million  dollars  annually 
merely  because  he  is  the  son  of  his  father,  another 
man  $10,000  a  year  for  managing  the  father's  bus- 
iness, and  other  men  $1,000  or  $2,000  a  year,  each, 
for  furnishing  the  bulk  of  the  labor.  Socialism 
makes  a  strong  plea  for  a  more  just  distribution 
of  wealth;  it  desires  to  eliminate  special  privilege. 
In  all  sincerity  it  argues  that  the  large  economic 
rewards  should  not  go  to  the  shrewd  and  the  cun- 
ning. It  asserts  that  the  big  prizes  should  not  all 
go  to  those  favored  by  inheritance  irrespective  of 
their  worth  as  members  of  society. 

(2)  Socialism  asks  for  a  more  scientific  organiza- 
tion of  the  productive  factors  in  society,  and  that 
wasteful  competition  be  eliminated.  There  are  per- 
haps three  times  as  many  milk  wagons,  horses,  and 
drivers  today  in  this  country  as  are  required  to 
serve  the  people.  No  one  would  think  of  returning 


THE  OCCUPATIONAL  GROUP  219 

to  competitive  postmen,  that  is,  of  having  three  or 
four  postmen  delivering  mail  on  a  given  street  at 
the  same  time  and  in  the  employment  of  as  many 
different  competitive  companies. 

(3)  Socialism  would  eliminate  the  commercial 
spirit  and  profitism.    The  spirit  of  producing  goods 
for  profit  would  be  removed — as  it  has  been  in  the 
mail  service.     It  is   argued  that  today  goods   are 
manufactured  primarily  for  profit,  that  is,  primarily 
for  selling  purposes  rather  than  because  of  useful- 
ness.   Under  socialism  it  is  said  that  the  business 
of  the  shop-keeper  will  be  to  help  the  customer  find 
out  what  he  really  needs,  whereas  under  capitalism 
it  is  often  to  his  interest  to  sell  the  customer  what 
he  does  not  need  or  what  will  return  the  largest 
profits. 

(4)  Current  socialistic  propaganda  is  calling  at- 
tention to  the  unjust  phases  of  industrial  and  social 
conditions.    It  fearlessly  proclaims  the  truth  about 
unjust  practices  and  engenders    a   critical   public 
spirit. 

The  first  weakness  of  socialism  that  may  be  men- 
tioned is  (1)  its  attempt  to  put  into  practice  an  eco- 
nomic system  long  before  people  are  trained  suffi- 
ciently to  sustain  it.  It  would  move  too  rapidly ;  it 
overlooks  needed  evolutionary  measures.  (2)  So- 
cialism tends  to  underestimate  the  premium  that  is 
placed  by  the  present  system  upon  thrift  and  energy. 
Under  capitalism  it  is  the  person  who  within  limits 


220  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

is  confronted  by  the  stern  necessity  of  making  his 
own  way  who  is  most  likely  to  develop  strength  of 
character,  at  least  an  individualistic  character.  Un- 
der socialism  there  would  be  grave  danger  that  in- 
dividuals would  succumb  to  the  tendency  of  relying 
upon  the  state.  The  slogan  might  become:  What 
does  it  matter,  the  state  will  take  care  of  me  any- 
way. (3)  Under  socialism  there  would  still  be  seri- 
ous danger  to  individual  liberty.  Under  capitalism 
when  political  rulers  and  business  magnates  com- 
bine, the  majority  of  the  people  are  helpless.  Un- 
der socialism  vast  political  power  and  absolute  eco- 
nomic monopoly  would  be  in  the  hands  of  a  few 
persons  at  a  time ;  moreover  such  concentrated  au- 
thority would  be  fully  legal.  (4)  Socialism  puts 
nearly  all  its  emphasis  upon  a  new  organization  of 
society.  It  holds  that  if  you  will  change  the  struc- 
ture of  the  social  order,  you  will  secure  the  desired 
improvement.  It  does  not  provide  for  adequate 
and  direct  changes  in  personal  character  and  in  per- 
sonal attitudes  toward  other  classes  of  people  and 
society.  It  makes  no  primary  effort  to  change  the 
selfish  attitude  which  governs  people  so  much  of  the 
time. 

There  is  no  question  but  that  increasing  numbers 
of  persons  in  many  and  various  parts  of  the  world 
are  coming  to  look  with  favor  upon  socialism.  The 
most  thorough  and  unselfish  students  of  the  move- 
ment, however,  are  clearly  divided.  Sociological 


THE  OCCUPATIONAL  GROUP  221 

thought  has  not  put  its  stamp  of  approval  upon 
socialism,  and  will  not  until  the  psychological,  eco- 
nomic, social,  and  moral  objections  to  it  have  been 
met  successfully. 

The  era  of  "individualism,"  however,  must  pass. 
The  laissez  faire  policy  of  letting  individuals  oper- 
ate their  own  business  as  they  see  fit  and  without 
acting  in  accordance  with  social  welfare  must  be 
supplanted.  Sociology  does  not  hold  that  either 
economic  individualism  or  socialism  will  be  the  so- 
lution of  social  maladjustments.  It  does  not  believe 
in  having  all  business  conducted  by  governmental 
enterprise  or  under  individual  control  alone. 

Public  monopoly  is  usually  slow  in  carrying  out 
projects  or  in  initiating  new  movements;  it  may 
also  fall  into  the  hands  of  a  few  individuals,  work- 
ing together  secretly  in  the  interests  of  a  special 
class.  Private  monopoly  is  more  likely  to  favor  the 
interests  of  a  few  or  a  class ;  it  may  even  attempt 
to  dictate  to  governments.  Both  public  enterprise 
with  its  social  interests  and  private  initiative  may 
well  be  maintained,  for  each  is  needed  as  a  stimulus 
to  and  a  check  upon  the  other. 

It  now  remains  to  speak  of  guild  socialism,  syn- 
dicalism, and  bolshevism.  Guild  socialism  as  the 
movement  that  has  developed  in  England  is  strug- 
gling toward  the  organization  of  manufacturing  es- 
tablishments as  industrial  units  with  the  workers  in 
charge  and  in  virtual  ownership.  It  would  not  in- 


222  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

terfere  with  present  governmental  matters,  but  con- 
tent itself  purely  as  an  industrial  organization  pro- 
cedure. 

Guild  socialism  is  to  be  distinguished  from  the 
program  of  the  British  Labor  Party  which  is  based 
upon  political  activity  of  labor.  Through  the  exer- 
cise of  the  right  of  suffrage,  labor  aims  to  secure 
and  maintain  control  of  the  House  of  Commons 
and  the  important  administrative  positions.  The 
program  also  includes  the  principle  of  nationaliza- 
tion of  the  chief  industries.  The  method  is  evolu- 
tionary and  educational. 

Syndicalism  in  France,  paralleled  in  part  by  the 
activities  in  the  United  States  of  the  Industrial 
Workers  of  the  World,  is  radical.  It  holds  that 
the  socialist's  program  is  too  mild,  and  that  the 
political  method  of  securing  economic  control  will 
fail,  because  when  socialists  are  elected  to  office 
they  tend  to  become  conservative.  The  syndicalist 
advocates  "direct  action,''  that  is,  striking  directly 
at  profits.  A  part  of  the  method  is  represented  by 
"sabotage,"  which  originally  referred  to  throwing 
a  shoe  into  a  machine  so  as  to  stop  production  and 
thus  to  bring  the  employer  to  terms.  If  you  are 
working  in  a  freight  office  and  asked  to  ship  oranges 
from  Florida  to  Illinois,  then  change  the  shipping 
address  to  some  town  in  New  Mexico.  In  this  way 
utter  business  confusion  will  result,  profits  will  be 
cut  off,  the  consumers  will  protest  against  capital- 


THE  OCCUPATIONAL  GROUP  223 

ism  and  business  under  capitalistic  control  will  be 
defeated ;  a  new  economic  order  can  be  set  up.  The 
general  strike  is  also  advocated.  Let  all  employees 
cease  to  labor,  and  capitalistic  business  cannot  go 
on — it  will  fail,  leaving  the  way  open  for  syndical- 
ism. 

Bolshevism,  representing  the  radical  wing  of 
Marxian  socialism,  came  into  power  in  Russia  in 
1917.  The  World  War  had  killed  the  Czarist  army 
officers,  and  as  the  men  in  the  ranks  came  into 
military  leadership  they  finally  swung  the  proleta- 
riat into  power  in  a  bloodless  revolution.  For  the 
first  time  in  the  world,  the  propertyless  classes 
overthrew  the  propertied  classes  and  assumed  polit- 
ical control  in  one  of  the  largest  countries  of  the 
earth.  They  established  a  "dictatorship  of  the  pro- 
letariat," using  the  same  autocratic  methods  that 
they  had  learned  under  the  lash  of  the  imperialistic 
forces  of  the  czars.  They  represent  class  control 
in  a  new  form.  Their  success  or  failure  depends  on 
the  type  of  education  which  they  develop,  the  de- 
gree of  democracy  which  they  put  into  practice, 
and  the  social  attitudes  which  they  achieve. 

Syndicalism  and  bolshevism  use  revolutionary 
weapons  which  are  out  of  place  in  a  democracy. 
While  their  methods  of  control  are  ancient,  they 
represent  the  increasing  social  unrest  of  the  times. 
To  denounce  them  feverishly  and  to  jail  their 
leaders  will  strengthen  their  cause.  The  chief  thing 


224  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

needed  is  that  the  causes  of  economic  and  social 
unrest  be  rooted  out. 

9.  Social  Insurance  and  Co-operative  Movements. 
Before  proceeding  to  apply  the  principles  of  democ- 
racy to  industry,  it  will  be  well  to  consider  certain 
ameliorative  movements.  Social  insurance  refers 
to  the  insurance  of  the  working  classes  through 
state  action.  The  funds  are  furnished  in  part  by 
the  employer,  in  part  sometimes  by  the  employee, 
and  in  part  sometimes  by  the  state  itself. 

In  the  case  of  accident  insurance  or  workmen's 
compensation,  the  employer  usually  pays  all  the 
costs  of  an  accident.  When  a  $5,000  machine  in 
a  factory  wears  out,  its  loss  is  charged  to  the  costs 
of  production;  when  a  $5,000  employee  suffers 
death  as  the  result  of  an  accident  while  at  work, 
this  loss  is  also  being  charged  to  the  cost  of  produc- 
tion, and  the  sum  of  $5,000  is  paid  in  installments 
to  the  widow  or  children,  or  both. 

In  addition  to  workmen's  compensation  for  ac- 
cidents, compulsory  insurance  against  sickness  and 
against  old  age  have  gained  considerable  momen- 
tum. Compulsory  unemployment  insurance  which 
was  introduced  into  England  in  1912  in  two  lead- 
ing trades,  has  gained  noticeable  headway,  but  is 
still  in  an  experimental  stage. 

Social  insurance  has  the  merit  of  providing  for 
the  industrial  workers  and  their  families  in  the 


THE  OCCUPATIONAL  GROUP  225 

pecuniary  crises  of  life.  This  fact  gives  the  workers 
a  degree  of  freedom  from  anxiety  in  normal  times, 
increasing  their  happiness  and  efficiency.  Social 
insurance  is  sometimes  considered  an  opening 
wedge  for  socialism,  a  point  that  is  exaggerated  in 
the  mind  of  the  fearful.  A  more  serious  objection 
is  that  social  insurance  may  undermine  a  full  sense 
of  individual  responsibility.  In  a  way  it  would  be 
better  to  provide  higher  wages  and  to  promulgate 
habits  of  thrift,  so  that  individual  responsibility 
may  flourish,  always  of  course  toward  socialized 
ends. 

Profit-sharing  refers  ordinarily  to  an  agreement, 
freely  accepted,  by  which  "the  employee  receives  a 
share,  fixed  in  advance,  of  the  profits."  It  is  a  plan 
of  paying  to  employees  a  share  of  profits  in  addition 
to  wages.  It  is  assumed  that  the  profits  which  are 
shared  will  be  created  by  the  increased  diligence 
and  care  of  the  employees. 

Another  procedure  for  improving  the  conditions 
of  men  in  industry  is  "co-operation,"  which  refers  to 
the  efforts  on  the  part  of  the  working  class  to  abolish 
profits  by  distributing  them,  or  surplus  funds, 
among  those  whose  labor  or  trade  has  created  the 
surplus.  Consumers'  co-operation  consists  generally 
in  a  union  of  many  consumers  for  the  purpose  of 
obtaining  commodities  at  wholesale  rates,  of  sell- 
ing them  at  the  ordinary  retail  rates  to  their  own 
members,  and  then  of  dividing  the  profits  from 


226  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

such  sales  among  themselves  upon  some  equitable 
basis. 

Producers'  co-operation  is  a  different  system. 
While  the  aim  of  consumers'  co-operation  is  to  give 
the  purchaser  the  advantage  of  lower  costs,  the 
purpose  of  producers'  co-operation  is  commonly 
given  as  that  of  raising  prices  for  the  benefit  of 
laborers.  Hence  there  exists  an  essential  antago- 
nism between  consumers'  and  producers'  co-oper- 
ative activities.  Associations  of  workmen,  employ- 
ing managers  and  acting  as  their  own  employers, 
have  been  successful,  but  not  with  uneducated  and 
untrained  people. 

Some  of  the  difficulties  in  connection  with  pro- 
ducers' co-operation  are  a  lack  of  sufficient  capital, 
endless  trouble  with  incompetent  and  shiftless 
members,  the  problem  of  securing  and  keeping  an 
efficient  manager,  the  lack  of  grace  with  which 
losses  are  borne,  and  an  insufficient  degree  of  in- 
telligent and  socialized  background  on  the  part  of 
the  rank  and  file. 

10.  Industrial  Democracy.  The  World  War  pro- 
jected the  concept  of  democracy  into  industrial  re- 
lations with  a  vengeance.  Democracy  however  is 
a  general  term  under  which  people  in  Western  civi- 
lization place  their  own  social  attitudes ;  industrial 
democracy  has  likewise  proved  an  unstandardized 
concept. 


THE  OCCUPATIONAL  GROUP  227 

For  many  years,  employers  were  prone  to  confuse 
welfare  work  with  industrial  democracy.  The  in- 
troduction in  a  business  establishment  of  clean 
towels,  baths,  restaurants,  rest  rooms,  and  free 
dental  service  illustrates  welfare  work.  As  a  result 
the  employer  is  usually  repaid  in  the  form  of  the 
increased  efficiency  of  and  improved  personal  re- 
lations with  his  employees. 

The  American  workman  however  is  peculiarly 
sensitive  to  anything  that  suggests  charity.  It  has 
been  pointed  out  that  persons  who  understand 
workmen  at  all,  realize  that  they  do  not  want  to 
be  subjected  to  the  receipt  of  gifts  and  charities 
which  would  place  them  under  lasting  servile  ob- 
ligation to  the  donors,  the  employers.  Real  welfare 
work,  according  to  C.  R.  Henderson,  is  fair  wages 
and  shorter  hours  of  labor.  It  is  being  urged  that 
the  benevolent  works  of  employers  in  the  form  of 
welfare  activities  which  at  first  seemed  to  be  gra- 
cious and  liberal  gifts,  should  be  required  by  law. 

Genuine  industrial  democracy  involves  three 
main  factors  in  the  production  of  economic  goods, 
namely,  the  public,  labor,  and  capital.  The  needs 
and  welfare  of  the  public  are  primary ;  the  interests 
of  both  labor  and  capital  are  secondary.  Any  eco- 
nomic system  which  gives  the  entire  management 
of  business  to  labor  is  unsound ;  likewise  capitalism 
is  in  error  when  it  claims  that  capital  should  dom- 
inate. 


228  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

It  is  thought  by  many  persons  that  the  main  solu- 
tion of  the  economic  problem  is  to  give  labor  repre- 
sentation on  boards  of  directors  and  in  management 
of  industry.  Such  a  plan  is  being  tried  with  vary- 
ing degrees  of  success.  Capital  opposes  it  and  la- 
bor is  not  trained  for  it  and  often  does  not  wish 
to  assume  so  much  responsibility.  Labor  desires 
representation  on  shop  committees  which  regulate 
the  conditions  of  work,  hours,  and  even  wages,  but 
it  is  not  willing  or  able  as  a  rule  to  assume  financial 
risk. 

The  joint  control  of  industry  by  capital  and 
labor  is  no  certain  cure-all  for  industrial  evils. 
Capital  and  labor  have  showed  signs  of  combining 
against  the  public.  Capital  has  profiteered  and 
labor  has  demanded  abnormally  high  wages.  In  a 
given  corporation  an  increase  in  selling  costs  was 
proposed  recently  with  the  understanding  that  one- 
half  of  the  profits  that  might  accrue  should  be 
turned  into  dividends  and  one-half  into  wages. 
Capital  and  labor  thus  combined  against  the  con- 
sumer. In  the  matter  of  wages,  hours  of  labor,  and 
dividends  the  third  party  to  industrial  enterprise 
needs  to  have  a  voice  and  representation.  A  tri- 
partite organization  of  industry  is  essential  if  all 
interests  vitally  concerned  are  to  have  adequate 
representation. 

As  a  reaction  against  profiteering  on  the  part  of 
capital,  and  labor  also,  a  new  economic  phenome- 


THE  OCCUPATIONAL  GROUP  229 

non  occurred  in  the  fall  of  1919  in  the  United 
States;  a  new  type  of  strike  on  a  large  scale  took 
place.  The  buyers'  strike  continued  for  some  time 
as  a  protest  against  high  prices.  For  a  time  both  cap- 
ital and  labor  were  so  engrossed  in  their  struggle 
against  each  other  that  they  did  not  observe  that 
the  public  was  "striking"  against  them  both.  The 
buyers'  strike  demonstrates  the  necessity  of  includ- 
ing the  public  in  the  management  of  industry. 

It  is  claimed  that  industrial  democracy  will  shift 
the  emphasis  from  rights  to  functions.  Instead  of 
capital  employing  labor,  labor  will  employ  capital ; 
instead  of  goods  being  produced  for  profits,  business 
must  purge  itself  of  profitism,  as  medicine,  teach- 
ing, the  ministry  have  purged  themselves,  and  goods 
must  be  produced  for  use.  According  to  these  prin- 
ciples, capital  will  be  entitled  to  standard  rates  of 
interest,  dependent  upon  the  amount  of  risk  in- 
volved and  determined  by  labor-capital-consumer 
agreements.  Any  returns  above  the  standard  rates 
will  be  illegal.  The  professions  have  been  chang- 
ing from  a  profit  to  functional  and  standard  income 
bases.  If  business  does  not  follow  this  law  of  socio- 
economic  evolution,  it  will  probably  force  revolu- 
tions and  labor  class  control  by  the  uneducated 
masses  upon  nations. 

Under  industrial  democracy  it  is  claimed  that 
instead  of  as  high  dividends  as  possible  being  paid 
and  of  workers  being  paid  as  low  wages  as  they  will 


230  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

accept,  the  material  component  represented  chiefly 
by  capital  will  be  secured  at  as  low  a  rate  as  possible 
and  the  human  element,  the  workers,  will  be  paid  as 
much  as  possible.  Instead  of  a  prospective  investor 
in  stocks  and  bonds  asking  first,  what  dividends 
are  paid,  his  initial  inquiry  will  be,  what  service 
does  the  corporation  perform.  Social  welfare,  after 
all,  will  be  the  standard  by  which  all  classes  must 
measure  their  plans  and  activities.  Good  will  and 
the  spirit  of  "Come,  let  us  reason  together,"  are  also 
basic  to  the  operation  of  industrial  democracy. 
Nearly  all  other  methods  produce  revolution  and 
retrogression. 

In  the  three  chapters  ending  with  this  one,  the 
occupational  group  in  many  of  its  aspects,  processes, 
products,  and  problems  has  been  considered.  We 
now  pass  to  a  discussion  of  the  community  group. 


THE  OCCUPATIONAL  GROUP      231 


PROBLEMS 

1.  Can  you  name  any  employment  in  which  capital  pro- 

duces without  the  aid  of  labor? 

2.  In  which  labor  produces  without  the  aid  of  capital? 

3.  In  which  both  labor  and  capital  produce,  without  the 

aid  of  the  consumer? 

4.  Is  either  the  average  capitalist  or  the  average  socialist 

in  a   position  to  pass   an  unbiased   judgment  upon 
socialism? 

5.  Is  socialism  to  be  judged  by  its  ideals  or  by  the  way 

it  works? 

6.  Does  it  make  any  difference  who  owns  the  wealth,  pro- 

viding it  is  socially  administered? 

7.  Under  socialism,  what  is  to  take  the  place  of  the  present 

rewards  of  industry  as  an  incentive  to  the  exertion 
of  the  individual's  best  interests? 

8.  Explain:  "Luxury  at  present  can  be  enjoyed  only  by  the 

ignorant." 

9.  Can  business  enterprise  survive  if,  as  is  the  case  in  the 

teaching  profession,  the  element  of  profits  were  elim- 
inated ? 

10.  What  is  the  difference  between  an  acquisitive  society 
and  a  functional  society? 


CHAPTER  XII 
THE  COMMUNITY  GROUP 


THE  COMMUNITY  GROUP  is  here  used  in  the  sense 
of  a  social  control  organization.  In  an  elemental 
way  it  is  represented  by  a  neighborhood.  In  a  more 
positive  governmental  sense,  it  is  best  illustrated  by 
the  nation ;  in  its  broadest  meaning  it  refers  to  the 
world  group. 

1.  The  Neighborhood  Group.  The  child's  play 
group,  which  has  already  received  consideration, 
generally  overlaps  with  the  neighborhood,  that  is, 
it  contains  neighborhood  children.  It  is  in  this 
way  that  the  neighborhood  usually  comes  into  the 
child's  consciousness. 

The  neighborhood  also  contains  members  who  are 
outside  the  play  group  or  even  the  friendship  group 
of  the  child  or  of  the  child's  parents ;  it  includes  all 
persons  living  within  a  face-to-face  communicative 
area.  In  large  cities  the  neighborhood  is  likely  to 
be  a  group  of  people  characterized  chiefly  by  the 
fact  that  they  live  within  a  certain  geographic  area. 
There  are  many  types  of  neighborhoods,  such  as  a 
rural  neighborhood,  a  village  neighborhood,  or  an 


THE   COMMUNITY   GROUP  233 

immigrant  neighborhood  in  a  large  city. 

The  neighborhood  is  a  combination  of  several 
family  groups,  and  of  the  representatives  of  several 
play  and  occupational  groups.  Its  appeal  is  pri- 
marily to  the  gregarious  impulses;  children  and 
women  feel  its  strength  more  than  men.  Its  bonds 
are  rarely  strong,  except  as  it  supports  a  neighbor- 
hood enterprise,  such  as  a  system  of  material  im- 
provements, an  athletic  team,  or  a  "drive."  It  has 
no  specific  form  of  group  control,  which  is  due  to 
lack  of  group  aims  and  which  explains  its  weak- 
nesses as  a  group  phenomenon. 

Since  the  neighborhood  is  comprised  of  fgjnily 
group^-Tvhose  chief  tie  is  geographic  proximity,  con- 
flict and  co-operation  alike  flourish.  The  neighbor- 
hood feud  is  common,  spectacular,  and  lasting.  It 
usually  begins  with  a  disagreement  between  two 
families  over  a  boundary  line  between  property, 
over  live  stock,  children,  or  over  something  that  a 
member  of  one  family  says  about  a  member  of  an- 
other family.  The  imagination  works  feverishly 
and  imagined  wrongs  multiply.  Gossip  does  its 
deadly  work  until  a  whole  neighborhood  of  families 
is  divided  into  two  opposing  camps. 

The  feud  illustrates  the  neighborhood  quarrel  at 
its  worst ;  it  may  run  for  years  and  generations.  In 
the  mountain  districts  it  may  lead  to  murder,  and 
last  until  all  the  thirty-two  MacGregors  have  been 
killed  and  all  but  one  of  the  thirty-three  Mclntosh's, 


234  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

leaving  only  one  Mclntosh  alive  and  thus  demon- 
strating to  a  disinterested  world  that  the  Mcln- 
tosh's  have  won. 

The  neighborhood  is  rarely  appreciated  as  a  de- 
mocratising agency.  It  is  a  nation  in  miniature;  it 
may  create  a  group-consciousness  which  is  generic 
to  national  patriotism.  It  affords  an  opportunity, 
like  the  public  school  group,  for  individuals  of  many 
types  of  thought,  cultural  backgrounds,  and  racial 
traditions  to  learn  to  co-operate  and  develop  com- 
mon viewpoints,  to  participate  in  common  neigh- 
borhood enterprises,  and  thus  to  develop  a  group 
consciousness  which  is  the  essence  of  democracy. 

A  recent  movement  is  community  recreation.  Ac- 
cording to  this  procedure  the  people  of  given  neigh- 
borhoods organize  on  the  basis  of  a  common  need, 
that  of  recreation.  Then,  through  the  activities  of 
skilled  recreation  leaders  and  through  common 
participation,  the  people  give  an  historical  pageant, 
establish  a  community  theater,  or  unite  in  support 
of  a  recreation  center  with  the  schoolhouse  as  the 
common  meeting  place.  It  is  possible  for  a  neigh- 
borhood even  of  size  to  furnish  itself  with  nearly 
all  the  recreation  it  needs,  at  a  minimum  of  cost, 
and  what  is  far  more  important,  to  develop  withal  a 
group  consciousness. 

A  neighborhood  consciousness  may  be  created 
not  only  through  community  recreation  but  also 
through  other  forms  of  common  activity,  for  ex- 


THE   COMMUNITY   GROUP  235 

ample,  a  community  church.  Again,  it  is  possible 
to  organize  a  neighborhood  on  a  general  welfare 
basis.  Such  a  community  organization  may  send 
its  representatives  to  the  city  council  in  support  of 
needed  neighborhood  measures ;  it  may  work  for  a 
lower  water  rate  or  lower  prices  on  milk;  it  may 
establish  its  own  poor  relief;  it  may  achieve  a  re- 
markable degree  of  unselfish  group  service. 

The  village  as  a  neighborhood  center  has  not 
succeeded  as  well  in  the  United  States  as  in  other 
countries.  It  has  become  often  a  dead  center. 
People  move  away  from  their  isolated  dwellings, 
pass  by  the  village,  and  locate  in  the  large  city.  The 
village  is  however  a  socially  strategic  unit,  especial- 
ly so  in  this  country  where  the  isolated  farm  dwell- 
ing is  so  common.  The  village  possesses  all  the  po- 
tential advantages  of  urban  neighborhoods  and  af- 
fords expression  for  the  gregarious  impulses  of 
rural  people  living  a  half  mile  or  more  from  neigh- 
bors. It  is  or  may  be  large  enough  to  maintain 
nearly  all  the  advantages  of  the  city.  It  can  still 
keep  clear  from  the  hustle,  the  superficiality,  the 
soot,  the  squalor,  and  the  homelessness  of  the  large 
city. 

In  the  United  States,  however,  the  rural  people 
are  characterized  by  an  unusual  degree  of  provin- 
cial independence  and  a  lack  of  travel  experiences 
which  prevents  the  villagers  from  developing  into 
a  thriving  neighborhood  community.  Villagers  do 


236  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

not  have  the  social  contacts  necessary  for  the  de- 
velopment of  energetic  personalities ;  they  are  sub- 
jected to  a  degree  of  genuine  social  isolation. 

In  the  city  the  neighborhood  is  also  handicapped. 
The  variety  in  the  racial  composition  or  in  occu- 
pational composition  is  often  so  great  as  to  prevent 
neighborization.  Occupational  interests  act  as  cen- 
trifugal forces,  sending  the  neighborhood  citizens 
into  diverging  paths  with  diverse  aims.  The  auto- 
mobile acts  as  another  type  of  centrifugal  force 
that  dissipates  neighborhood  unity. 

Thus,  the  neighborhood  fails  to  measure  up  to  its 
possibilities  as  a  group  organization.  It  lacks  the 
coherency  of  the  family,  play,  and  occupational 
groups ;  and  as  a  rule  shows  signs  of  group  life  only 
in  times  of  crises  or  under  compulsion. 

The  neighborhood  is  often  charged  with  directly 
fostering  homelessness.  Many  neighborhood  dwell- 
ers do  not  know  their  "neighbors"  at  all,  or  only 
from  seeing  them  upon  the  street.  The  neighbor- 
hood unfortunately  melts  away  into  the  larger 
communality,  the  district,  township,  city,  or  county, 
instead  of  contributing  an  effective  group  conscious- 
ness to  the  larger  community  life. 

2.  The  Nation  Group.  The  neighborhood  group 
was  once  the  governmental  or  social  control  group. 
It  gradually  gave  way  before  one  larger  organiza- 
tion after  another  until  today  the  sovereign  govern- 


THE   COMMUNITY   GROUP  237 

mental  group  is  the  nation.     . 

Government  originated  in  the  need  of  protec- 
tion of  individuals  from  their  fellows.  Those  forms 
of  life  which  live  in  groups  and  subject  to  group 
organization  have  an  advantage  over  other  forms. 
Wild  horses  that  have  developed  a  group  organiza- 
tion are  able  to  withstand  the  attacks  of  ferocious 
animals,  such  as  the  lion  or  tiger.  Individuals  who 
live  under  a  group  organization  survive,  while 
others  perish.  Group  organization  is  not  only  the 
basis  of  individual  development,  but  also  of  protec- 
tion after  individuals  have  reached  maturity. 

Primitive  people  lived  in  groups,  submitting 
themselves  to  the  rules  and  regulations  of  a  crude 
government,  especially  in  times  of  crises  and  danger. 
In  the  presence  of  a  common  enemy,  primitive 
peoples  developed  a  keen  sense  of  the  need  of  pro- 
tection and  responded  eagerly  to  leadership.  The 
rise  of  fear  is  always  a  potent  force  in  creating 
group  or  governmental  bonds.  The  need  of  de- 
fensive strength  leads  to  the  recognition  of  the  im- 
portance of  group  union,  to  the  giving  up  of  indi- 
vidual privileges,  to  the  acceptance  of  group  rules, 
and  to  a  new  common  life  under  group  or  political 
organization. 

Under  the  protection  of  group  organization, 
primitive  people  established  the  beginnings  of  oc- 
cupational stability  and  social  advance.  Here  also 
is  found  the  origin  of  private  property.  As  a  result 


238  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

of  group  organization,  early  man  possessed  a  meas- 
ure of  protection  from  the  "outside,"  and  had  a 
little  world  where  ordinarily  he  could  live  at  peace, 
a  peace  which  is  one  of  the  first  conditions  of  prog- 
ress. He  also  had  a  measure  of  protection  from 
enemies  within  the  group,  which  led  to  an  in- 
creased unity  and  strength  of  the  whole  group. 

The  "horde"  was  the  group  organization  in  which 
the  modern  state  had  its  origin.  It  was  a  sort  of 
temporary  oligarchy,  based  to  an  extent  on  respect 
for  those  whose  personal  prowess  enabled  the  group 
to  meet  attack  successfully.  The  horde  is  to  be 
distinguished  from  the  clan  or  organization  of 
families,  from  the  "household"  or  group  organiza- 
tion for  economic  purposes ;  and  from  the  phratry, 
or  group  organization  for  social,  recreation,  and  re- 
ligious ends. 

The  horde  possessed  three  of  the  fundamental 
elements  of  the  modern  nation  state.  It  had  (1) 
the  idea  of  the  authority  of  the  leader;  (2)  a  notion 
of  law — in  the  obedience  given  to  the  commands  of 
the  chief,  and  in  the  customs  governing  the  group 
while  fighting  and  hunting;  and  (3)  a  common 
unity,  since  all  members  were  combined  for  a  gen- 
eral purpose. 

In  the  tribal  group,  which  was  an  advance  over 
the  horde,  the  need  for  protection  was  again  the 
leading  factor.  The  ties  of  blood  relationship,  as 
was  the  case  in  the  horde,  functioned  as  a  bond  of 


THE   COMMUNITY   GROUP  239 

union.  The  common  descent  of  members  from  a 
fictitious  ancestor  was  postulated;  the  ruler,  or 
king,  was  invested  with  the  absolute  authority  of  a 
father.  Religion,  also,  especially  in  the  form  of 
ancestor  worship,  rendered  important  service  in  de- 
veloping the  habit  of  obedience.  It  enforced  with 
supernatural  sanctions  the  customs  including  the 
political  ideas  of  the  past.  The  tribal  group,  then, 
was  based  on  the  need  for  protection,  on  ties  of 
blood  relationships,  and  on  the  strength  of  a  com- 
mon religion. 

The  city-state  of  the  Greeks  and  the  Romans,  for 
example,  was  an  outgrowth  of  tribal  group  life.  The 
need  for  protection  was  greater  than  ever;  the  ties 
of  blood  relationship  were  still  strong.  Religion 
was  still  an  affair  of  the  state  and  a  bond  of  politi- 
cal strength.  The  authority  of  the  city-state  was 
greater,  more  regular  in  its  exercise,  and  more  per- 
manent in  its  nature  than  that  of  the  tribal  group. 
The  city-state  developed  an  elaborate  machinery 
for  administrative  purposes  and  created  organized 
protection  of  the  weaker  members. 

The  feudal  state  was  no  longer  an  enlarged  fam- 
ily, as  was  the  tribal  group;  it  was  more  like  an 
army.  The  government  of  the  feudal  state  was  a 
type  of  a  definite  military  institution.  In  theory 
the  king  owned  the  whole  feudal  group.  He  par- 
celled out  the  land  to  his  nobles,  who  in  turn  dis- 
tributed it  among  their  subordinates.  The  state 


240  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

was  concentrated  in  the  monarchy.  The  members 
did  not  live  so  much  for  the  state  as  for  the  ruler ; 
personal  allegiance  to  the  king  seemed  to  take  pre- 
cedence over  the  other  factors  which  kept  the  state 
together. 

The  absolute  monarchy  was  in  reality  an  over- 
grown feudal  state.  For  many  centuries  the  mon- 
archs  treated  their  respective  states  as  their  private 
property;  concessions  from  them  were  always  se- 
cured with  difficulty.  Any  limitation  of  the  au- 
thority of  the  monarch  was  rarely  secured  except 
at  the  cost  of  bloodshed.  Political  parties  began  to 
develop,  but  of  course  as  secret  group  organizations. 
In  Russia,  for  example,  political  parties  existed 
largely  as  secret  organizations  until  1917. 

The  next  transition  was  to  the  constitutional 
monarchy.  The  people  slowly  but  surely  obtained 
certain  rights  from  the  ruler.  A  parliament  was 
created  to  register  the  will  of  the  people.  The 
monarch  lost  his  status  of  a  superior  being  with 
divine  rights ;  he  became  a  minister  to  the  people. 
Political  parties  became  stronger;  they  developed 
into  open  organizations,  representing  conservative 
and  radical  attitudes  on  the  various  questions  of 
interest  to  the  state.  The  sovereignty  of  the  people 
as  the  real  governing  power  became  recognized. 

In  a  democracy,  the  latest  experiment  in  group 
control,  politically  speaking,  the  office  of  king  has 
been  abolished,  and  the  sovereignty  of  the  people 


THE   COMMUNITY   GROUP  241 

established.  By  means  of  representatives  the  people 
and  the  government  are  welded  into  a  close  relation- 
ship. Gigantic  political  parties  develop ;  there  are 
generally  no  more  than  two  leading  political  parties 
in  the  state  at  a  given  time,  one  representing  the 
conservative  and  the  other  the  radical  phase  of 
specific  issues. 

Political  parties  perform  a  definite  social  func- 
tion. In  democratic  countries,  the  party  in  power 
rarely  initiates  new  programs.  It  generally  has 
more  than  it  can  do  in  fulfilling  pre-election  prom- 
ises. The  party  not  in  control  renders  a  definite 
sendee  in  prodding  up  the  party  in  power,  and  in 
insisting  that  the  latter  live  up  to  its  promises.  The 
party  out  of  power,  as  a  rule,  stands  for  progressive 
measures  and  for  new  ideas  and  methods  in  order 
to  bid  successfully  for  the  suffrage  of  the  people. 

The  nation  state  is  a  group  of  people  exercising 
organized  control  over  its  members  and  over  a 
specific  territory.  Its  general  forms  of  activity  are 
three-fold:  (1)  activity  with  reference  to  other 
states,  guaranteeing  protection  from  external  at- 
tack or  undue  interference;  (2)  activity  with  refer- 
ence to  its  citizens,  guaranteeing  them  liberty  and 
security;  and  (3)  activity  in  promoting  construc- 
tive measures  for  group  advance. 

In  regard  to  the  first  function,  the  state  carries  on 
an  elaborate  set  of  diplomatic  and  military  activi- 
ties, helping  thus  to  develop  a  distinct  national  life. 


242  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

The  citizen  expresses  his  indebtedness  to  the  state 
in  its  diplomatic  and  military  endeavors  in  the 
form  of  the  sentiment  of  patriotism.  The  strength 
of  this  sentiment  becomes  apparent  only  when  some 
other  state  assumes  an  aggressive  or  pugnacious  at- 
titude. 

In  the  second  place,  the  state  defends  the  law- 
abiding  citizen,  and  punishes  the  anti-social  mem- 
ber. It  enforces  contracts  between  individuals, 
when  properly  drawn;  it  affords  damages  for  ac- 
cidents ;  it  gives  protection  to  groups  of  individuals 
when  organized  in  corporate  bodies  for  business 
purposes ;  and  it  aims  to  protect  individuals  against 
fraud. 

The  punishment  of  individuals  who  commit  of- 
fences against  other  individuals  or  against  the  state 
itself  is  a  function  needed  for  the  protection  of  the 
law-abiding  citizen;  it  is  a  function  which  clearly 
belongs  to  the  state,  because  the  infliction  of  such 
punishment  requires  the  use  of  an  authority  which 
extends  to  all  parts  of  the  state.  Hence  the  state 
establishes  an  elaborate  police  system  to  catch 
guilty  persons,  and  in  the  person  of  its  own  attor- 
neys conducts  the  case  against  them.  It  provides 
machinery  for  determining  justice  and  for  punish- 
ing the  convicted. 

In  the  third  place,  the  state  promotes  social  and 
economic  measures.  It  has  taken  up  the  coinage 
of  money  and  assumed  charge  of  banking  systems ; 


THE   COMMUNITY   GROUP  243 

it  has  become  an  extensive  employer  of  labor;  it 
carries  the  mails ;  it  builds  and  maintains  highways. 
The  question  may  be  raised:  How  far  should  the 
state  go  in  the  economic  sphere?  The  answer  may 
be  given :  To  the  point  where  the  socialized  expres- 
sion of  individual  initiative  and  creative  impulses 
is  hindered. 

The  state  is  a  group  which  needs  citizens  of 
strong  moral  character,  but  moral  character  usually 
cannot  be  created  by  force.  The  state,  however, 
does  something  in  this  connection,  such  as  prevent- 
ing the  circulation  of  impure  literature,  and  limit- 
ing the  sale  of  intoxicants. 

The  state  and  church  are  no  longer  one  in  all 
countries.  The  combination  creates  undue  concen- 
tration of  power,  and  sometimes  tends  to  make  re- 
ligion perfunctory.  If  religious  needs,  however, 
are  vital  to  the  development  of  the  best  type  of  per- 
sons and  citizens,  then  the  religious  phases  of  life 
cannot  be  entirely  neglected  by  the  state. 

3.  The  World  Group.  The  succession  of  horde, 
tribe,  tribal  confederacy,  city-state,  feudal  state, 
monarchical  state,  and  democratic  state  has  but  one 
"next  stage,"  and  that  is  world  community.  Christi- 
anity's fundamental  propositions  of  "brotherhood 
of  man"  and  "Fatherhood  of  God"  are  noteworthy 
beginnings.  These  sentiments  are  being  slowly 
rationalized  and  put  into  effect. 


244  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

Hundreds  of  international  organizations  have 
been  formed  in  the  last  fifty  years;  these  connote 
progress  in  world  community  thinking.  Although 
these  international  bodies  are  loosely  organized,  al- 
though they  have  voluntary  members,  and  although 
they  have  no  power  of  enforcement  of  rules,  they 
have  created  world  opinion  and  afforded  some  op- 
portunity for  co-operative  international  activities. 

The  Hague  Tribunal,  while  helpless  in  a  real 
world  crisis,  served  to  attract  the  attention  of  the 
nations  for  the  settlement  of  minor  disputes.  It 
has  played  the  part  of  a  meritorious  world  toy;  it 
has  demonstrated  the  need  for  a  more  effective 
world  instrument  of  adjudication.  The  League  to 
Enforce  Peace  set  a  new  world  ideal  clearly  before 
public  opinion,  and  led  by  degrees  to  a  League  of 
Nations,  the  formation  of  which  constituted  an- 
other step  in  the  direction  of  world  community. 
President  Woodrow  Wilson's  statement  before  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies  in  Italy  on  January  3,  1919, 
that  the  need  of  the  hour  is  to  organize  the  friend- 
ship of  the  world  is  still  fundamentally  true. 

Before  any  League  of  Nations  or  Association  of 
Nations  can  succeed,  the  majority  of  the  people  in 
the  leading  nations  must  learn  to  think  in  world 
terms.  They  must  establish  habits  of  world  think- 
ing; they  will  need  to  think  in  world  terms  for  a 
period  of  time  before  world  community  can  be  es- 
tablished. They  will  need  to  learn  to  judge  the 


THE   COMMUNITY   GROUP  245 

acts  of  their  own  respective  nations  and  of  other 
nations  from  the  standpoint  of  world  welfare.  Unto 
local,  provincial,  and  national  thinking  there  must 
be  added  world  thinking.  There  is  an  abundance 
of  local  minds,  but  only  a  few  world  minds  capable 
of  grasping  the  details  of  world  problems  in  their 
full  significance.  World  minds  can  be  created  by 
developing  habits  of  thinking  about  world  problems. 

International  law  is  an  evidence  of  world  com- 
munity thinking,  at  least  in  an  incipient  form.  In- 
ternational law  is  a  body  of  rules,  generally  recog- 
nized by  civilized  states,  which  determine  to  a  de- 
gree the  conduct  of  modern  states  in  their  mutual 
dealings.  The  co-existence  of  large  and  powerful 
states  has  made  it  necessary  that  they  develop 
standard  rules  of  action  in  their  conduct  with  each 
other. 

In  war  times  and  similar  crises  the  principles  of 
international  conduct  are  likely  to  be  violated. 
Owing  to  the  absence  of  an  adequate  coercive  force 
to  compel  a  nation  to  obey,  international  law  may 
break  down.  The  function  of  international  law, 
however,  is  to  regulate  the  conduct  of  national 
groups  in  all  their  dealings,  hostile  as  well  as  pacific. 
Modern  international  law  is  based  on  the  ruling 
principle  that  nations  are  units  in  a  larger  society, 
and  possess  mutual  obligations  and  rights.  Grotius 
was  the  leader  in  bringing  about  a  recognition  of  the 
world  societary  concept.  The  Hague  Tribunal  and 


246  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

similar  attempts  at  establishing  an  international 
court  have  broken  down  because  the  spirit  of  na- 
tionalism has  been  stronger  than  the  spirit  of  world 
community.  When  it  came  to  the  test,  public  opin- 
ion has  not  been  strong  enough  to  support  the  ma- 
chinery for  solving  world  problems. 

The  League  of  Nations  was  seriously  handi- 
capped at  the  very  beginning  of  its  career,  because  it 
was  built  upon  so  many  nationally  selfish  concepts. 
Some  feared  it  as  an  organization  of  nations  for 
the  promotion  of  an  autocratic  type  of  capitalism. 
Others  suspicioned  it  as  a  post-war  weapon  for  de- 
liberately furthering  the  welfare  of  certain  strong 
nations  at  the  expense  of  weak  ones.  Still  others 
presaged  that  it  would  become  a  League  of  Western 
Civilization.  Even  its  limited  power  to  deprive 
nations  of  a  part  of  their  sovereignty  was  deplored 
by  nationalists  everywhere. 

The  Washington  Conference  on  Limitation  of 
Armaments  was  based  on  the  principle  that  inde- 
pendent nations  should  come  to  agreements  on 
world  matters  without  giving  up  even  a  slight  de- 
gree of  sovereignty  to  a  world  organization.  The 
Conference  may  be  viewed  however  as  a  step  toward 
the  development  of  a  world  public  opinion  and  a 
world  conscience,  which  in  turn  will  lead  to  a  world 
organization  superior  in  function  to  nationality. 

Despite  the  progress  that  is  being  made,  the  peo- 
ple of  the  world  have  not  yet  sensed  the  meaning 


THE   COMMUNITY   GROUP  247 

of  world  community.  The  world  has  reached  the 
points  where  public  opinion  speaks  of  Western 
civilization  or  Eastern  civilization,  and  where  the 
differences  between  the  two,  not  the  likenesses,  are 
receiving  the  attention  of  hectic  and  spectacular  per- 
sons on  both  sides  of  the  Pacific.  The  average 
members  of  the  Western  social  order  are  widely  pro- 
claiming the  superiority  of  Western  civilization. 
They  fail  to  study,  either  at  all,  or  with  unpreju- 
diced minds  the  worthy  points  of  Eastern  develop- 
ment; they  see  chiefly  its  defects.  They  even  fail 
to  feel  humble  because  of  the  defects  of  their 
own  societary  organization.  Likewise,  many  of  the 
adherents  of  Eastern  civilization  are  silently  and 
politely  feeling  a  sense  of  pity  for  Western  chauvin- 
ists. Now  and  then  some  one  such  as  Rabindranath 
Tagore,  rises  up  and  openly  expresses  himself,  call- 
ing Western  society  black,  and  dwelling  upon  the 
superiorities  of  Orientalism. 

From  the  constructive  side,  an  excellent  analysis 
of  Western  civilization  has  been  made  by  Charles 
A.  Ellwood,  who  has  outlined  the  following  attri- 
butes. (1)  A  set  of  ethical  and  religious  values  was 
derived  from  the  Hebrews  and  early  Christians.  In 
the  former  the  major  concept  is  justice;  and  in  the 
latter,  love.  (2)  A  number  of  philosophical  and 
esthetic  values  was  contributed  by  the  Greeks.  (3) 
A  set  of  administrative  and  legal  values,  stressing 
the  rights  of  property,  originated  with  the  Romans. 


248  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

(4)  A  set  of  personal  liberty  values  was  developed 
by  the  early  Teutons  and  given  concrete  modern 
expression  under  the  laissez  faire  doctrine  of  the 
nineteenth  century  in  Western  Europe  and  the 
United  States.  Within  recent  decades,  additional 
values  have  been  produced  by  Occidentalism,  name- 
ly, (5)  scientific  methods,  (6)  business  and  indus- 
trial techniques,  and  (7)  as  an  antidote  to  economic 
extremes,  humanitarian  values. 

Eastern  civilization  is  known  for  (1)  its  self- 
sacrifice  values,  which  to  the  Oriental  makes  Oc- 
cidentalism seem  synonymous  with  organized  sel- 
fishness. (2)  There  is  a  set  of  contemplative  values 
in  Orientalism,  culminating  in  mysticism.  (3)  In 
the  East,  there  is  custom  veneration,  for  parents, 
for  established  ways,  for  the  naturally  and  socially 
stable  phases  of  life,  and  for  law  and  order.  (4) 
There  is  also  a  set  of  important  conventional  stand- 
ards which  express  themselves  in  human  courtesy 
and  appreciation  of  the  finer  things  of  life.  (5) 
Orientalism  is  esthetic,  and  mystically,  not  ration- 
ally philosophic.  (6)  Orientalism  is  noted  for  its 
sense  of  social  solidarity,  which  produces  a  strong 
sentiment  of  patriotism  and  social  obligation.  The 
social  group  and  its  standards  are  the  major  con- 
cepts and  the  individual,  the  minor.  In  the  East  the 
family  group  is  the  unit,  as  compared  with  the  indi- 
vidual in  the  West.  (7)  The  Oriental  lives  in  gener- 
alizations rather  than  in  particularizations — a  prin- 


THE   COMMUNITY   GROUP  249 

ciple  which  is  fundamental  to  the  Oriental's  other 
traits. 

When  the  positive  elements  in  Western  and  East- 
ern civilizations  are  brought  together,  their  real  an- 
tagonisms are  evident.  We  perceive  the  rational 
versus  the  mystically  philosophic,  particularization 
versus  generalization,  the  individual  over  against 
the  family  unit,  facts  versus  concepts,  individualism 
versus  solidarity,  utility  versus  estheticism,  action 
versus  contemplation,  the  physical  versus  the  psy- 
chical, anxiety  as  opposed  to  tranquility,  and  the 
means  of  life  versus  the  sake  of  living.  These  con- 
trasts, vividly  stated  by  Inazo  Nitobe,  upon  reflec- 
tion, provide  nothing  less  than  adequate  bases  for 
building  a  world  community  that  will  be  superior 
to  either  Western  or  Eastern  civilization. 

World  community  is  so  much  a  matter  of  the 
future  that  only  a  few  tendencies  can  be  noted.  Ap- 
parently (1)  world  community  will  be  psychically 
one  but  racially  several.  Mankind  had  a  common 
origin,  but  dispersed  in  various  directions  over  the 
earth.  In  migrating,  man  encountered  various 
physical  and  climatic  environments,  and  became 
differentiated  into  races  and  cultures.  The  cultures 
are  now  being  reunited.  The  process  of  social  evo- • 
lution  will  probably  produce  one  world  civilization. 
The  common  culture  will  always  show  marked 
variations,  but  its  unity  will  stand.  It  will  also 
achieve  a  considerable  amount  of  racial  admixture, 


250  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

intermarriage,  and  amalgamation,  but  distinct 
races  biologically  will  undoubtedly  remain.  The 
different  climatic  regions  of  the  earth  will  continue 
to  function  in  producing  dark  and  light  skinned 
races,  and  sunny  and  serious  peoples. 

(2)  World  civilization  will  apparently  produce  a 
world  political  structure  superior  in  strength  to  the 
most  powerful  nations  today,  and    yet    jealously 
guarding  the  needs  of  individual  nations,  both  large 
and  small.     It  will  be  built  out  of  the  virtues  of 
present-day  nations.     It  will  not  abolish  nations, 
but  foster  them  as  long  as  they  work  for  the  plan- 
etary good.    It  will  do  away  with  hyper-national- 
ism, provincialism,  and  chauvinism.    It  will  elim- 
inate the  balance  of  power  theory,  the  secret  treaty 
practice,  and  territorial  aggrandizement  schemes. 

(3)  World  community  will  be  democratic.    No 
permanent  world  structure  can  be  built  out  of  auto- 
cratic principles  or  governments.     Rulership  from 
the  top  down  exclusively,  bears  its  own  seeds  of 
destruction  in  the  power  which  it  gives  the  few  over 
the  many.    Through  autocracy,  even  the  education 
of  the  masses  can  be  subverted. 

Not  autocracy,  but  aristocracy  will  exist  with 
democracy  in  world  community.  It  will  be,  how- 
ever, a  democratic  aristocracy,  an  aristocracy  that 
will  be  guided  by  the  needs  of  the  many,  that  will 
not  waste  itself  in  extravagant  living,  that  will  con- 
tinuallv  endeavor  to  raise  all  individuals  to  its  own 


THE   COMMUNITY   GROUP  251 

levels  and  thus  create  a  democracy  of  social  aristo- 
crats, of  superior  men  and  women  with  unselfish 
super-social  aims. 

World  community  will  be  industrially  democrat- 
ic. Neither  labor  nor  capital  will  control.  One  has 
as  its  goal,  wages;  the  other,  profits.  Both  ends 
are  materialistic  and  low  grade.  Service  values  will 
rule  both  capital  and  labor.  Individuals  will  strive 
with  one  another  in  rendering  service;  service  will 
supplant  profitism  and  speculation.  The  service 
standard  already  rules  in  the  ministry,  in  the  teach- 
ing profession,  among  social  workers,  with  judges, 
and  almost  all  physicians. 

Some  force,  such  as  Christianity's  dynamic  of 
love,  is  needed  to  put  into  effect  the  three  foregoing 
principles  of  world  community.  Humanitarianism, 
having  no  goal  outside  itself  is  apt  to  become  self- 
centered,  concentrated,  and  professional.  The  Chris- 
tian principle  of  love  is  humanitarian,  and  more; 
its  ultimate  goal  is  located  outside  and  beyond  hu- 
manity. Thus  it  produces  the  best  available  ideal 
and  the  most  dynamic  guiding  force  for  world  com- 
munity. 

4.  The  Citizenship  Process.  The  process  of  de- 
veloping socialized  citizens  includes  measures  of 
creating  a  social  consciousness  in  and  through  com- 
munity participation  by  individuals.  The  problem 
of  creating  a  worthy  citizenry  is  of  foremost  im- 


252  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

portance  in  a  democracy. 

A  sinister  phase  of  the  problem  is  revealed  by 
the  general  indifference  of  individuals  in  the  matter 
of  voting  and  in  the  work  of  their  elected  represent- 
atives. The  multiplication  of  private  interests  in- 
vites neglect  of  the  more  fundamental  affairs  of 
government.  The  complexity  of  modern  city  life 
is  so  great  that  the  ordinary  person  has  difficulty 
in  determining  the  truth  about  candidates  for  office. 
Elihu  Root  has  said  that  the  people  of  the  United 
States  should  change  their  attitude  toward  their 
government.  "Too  many  of  us  have  been  trying 
to  get  something  out  of  the  country  and  too  few 
of  us  have  been  trying  to  serve  it.  Offices,  appro- 
priations, personal  or  class  benefits,  have  been  too 
generally  the  motive  power  that  has  kept  the  wheels 
of  government  moving.  Too  many  of  us  have  for- 
gotten that  a  government  which  is  to  preserve  lib- 
erty and  do  justice  must  have  the  heart  and  soul  of 
the  people  behind  it — not  mere  indifference." 

Government  even  in  most  countries  is  still  viewed 
as  an  external  "ruler"  operating  from  above.  It  is 
not  yet  considered  a  tool  of  the  people  by  which 
the  people  associated  in  pursuit  of  common  ends 
can  effectively  co-operate  for  realization  of  their 
own  aims.  The  problem  is  that  of  making  govern- 
mental machinery  such  a  prompt  and  flexible  in- 
strument that  it  will  drive  away  all  distrust. 

Since  individuals  give  their  attention  so  largely 


THE   COMMUNITY   GROUP  253 

to  their  private  affairs  and  neglect  political  matters 
so  generally,  "politics"  has  tended  to  become  a  trade 
of  a  class  of  experts  in  the  manipulation  of  their 
fellows.  Thus  "politics"  is  smirched  and  results  in 
further  aloofness  from  public  matters  by  those  per- 
sons who  are  best  fitted  to  participate. 

The  indifference  of  many  leaves  the  direction  of 
political  affairs  in  the  hands  of  the  few,  who  can 
work  in  more  or  less  irresponsible  secrecy.  That 
a  public  office  is  a  public  trust  is  a  principle  most 
difficult  to  realize. 

The  taxation  problem  creates  troublesome  ques- 
tions. Personal  property,  for  example,  is  reported  to 
assessors  so  inaccurately  that  the  honest  person  who 
reports  all  his  personal  property,  pays  more  than  his 
share  of  taxes.  He  is  confronted  with  the  choice, 
as  C.  R.  Henderson  has  said,  of  being  robbed  or  of 
perjuring  himself.  The  tax  on  personal  property 
leads  to  deception  and  has  gone  far  toward  making 
perjury  respectable  among  many  people. 

The  income  tax  is  a  relatively  simple  method  of 
bringing  about  a  more  just  apportionment.  The 
taxing  of  stocks  and  bonds  at  their  sources  instead 
of  taxing  persons  who  hold  them  is  meeting  with 
success.  The  graduated  tax  on  land  whereby  the 
people  through  their  governments  receive  the  un- 
earned increment  promises  well.  The  inheritance 
tax  in  graduated  form  is  being  extended  rapidly. 

Social  legislation  refers  to  legislation  for  the  pro- 


254  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

tection  of  men,  women,  and  children  in  industry,  to 
factory  laws,  and  compensation  acts.  At  nearly 
every  turn  these  welfare  measures  are  fought  by 
large  corporations. 

The  United  States  has  been  peculiarly  unfor- 
tunate in  failing  to  secure  uniform  laws  on  matters 
of  social  concern.  The  various  states  pass  laws, 
such  as  child  labor  laws,  pure  food  laws,  and  divorce 
laws,  without  reference  to  the  need  for  uniformity. 
This  emphasis  on  state's  rights  has  prevented  uni- 
formity of  legislation  on  questions  of  national  in- 
terest. 

If  one  state  has  a  law  prohibiting  child  labor  un- 
der twelve  years  of  age  in  factories  and  the  people 
of  an  adjoining  industrial  state  wish  to  pass  a  four- 
teen-year age  limit,  the  manufacturers  in  the  latter 
case  are  handicapped  in  the  competitive  market; 
thus  the  fourteen-year  age  limit  suffers  defeat.  The 
lack  of  uniformity  with  reference  to  divorce  laws 
has  been  notorious.  The  need  for  Federal  uniform- 
ity is  self-evident. 

National  egotism  is  perhaps  the  nation  group's 
greatest  enemy.  It  denies  the  full  obligation  of  the 
nation  to  the  world  group ;  it  creates  chauvinism ; 
it  leads  to  wars.  A  world  situation  in  which  there 
are  fifty-five  nation  groups,  each  setting  up  its  own 
standards  of  right  and  wrong  conduct,  and  each 
passing  judgment  on  all  the  other  fifty-four,  makes  * 
necessary  a  new  world  order,  socialized  citizenry,  f 


THE   COMMUNITY   GROUP  255 

and  a  widespread  community  consciousness.  The 
accomplishment  of  these  ends  is  the  task  of  the 
citizenship  process,  but  the  full  technique  of  this 
process  remains  yet  to  be  created. 


PROBLEMS 

1.  What  is  community  spirit? 

2.  Define  neighbor. 

3.  In  what  way  may  neighborhood  consciousness  be  de- 

veloped ? 

4.  What  is  a  nation? 

5.  Define:  a  good  citizen. 

6.  What  is  a  democratic  group? 

7.  "Are  laws  that  are  framed  in  the    interest    of    certain 

classes  of  individuals  of  permanent  advantage  to  the 
nation  as  a  whole?" 

8.  What  is  patriotism? 

9.  What  is  hyper-nationalism? 

10.  What  is  world  community? 

11.  In  what  ways  may  world  friendship  be  developed? 

12.  Is  world  organization  a  next  logical  step  in  social  evo- 

lution? 


CHAPTER  XIII 
THE  EDUCATIONAL  GROUP 


THE  FAMILY,  play,  occupational,  and  community 
types  of  groups  which  have  been  considered  in  the 
preceding  chapters  are  all  highly  educational.  In 
addition  there  are  other  groups,  particularly  school 
groups,  which  give  specific  and  technical  attention 
to  the  educational  process. 

1.  The  School  Group.  The  school  group  usually 
begins  with  the  kindergarten  and  ends  with  the  uni- 
versity and  professional  colleges.  The  kindergarten 
is  "more  wholly  social  than  any  other  grade  or  year" 
of  school  life ;  and  hence  possesses  a  greater  appeal 
to  pupils  than  any  other  stage  of  school  life.  The 
child's  work  is  organized  on  a  group  basis;  the 
group  stimulation  co-ordinates  so  well  with  the  play 
attitude  of  the  child  that  work  becomes  play.  Ac- 
tivity predominates ;  the  child  learns  almost  entirely 
through  doing,  and  reacts  enthusiastically  to  the 
process. 

Then,  the  school  group  becomes  organized  on  a 
routine  basis,  symbolized  by  the  checkerboard  seat- 
ing arrangement  in  the  schoolroom.  The  learn- 


THE   EDUCATIONAL   GROUP  257 

ing  processes  become  more  difficult  and  intellectual 
factors  become  segregated  from  the  affective  and 
volitional  elements.  The  children  organize  school 
"activities"  which  are  conducted  outside  school 
hours,  thus  supplanting  the  "passivities"  of  the  reg- 
ular routine,  while  the  affective  elements  in  the 
child's  nature  are  often  expressed  secretly  and  in 
unorganized  ways. 

In  college  and  university  life  the  situation  that 
first  finds  expression  in  the  grades  and  the  high 
school  becomes  crystallized,  and  college  life  becomes 
remote  from  real  life.  In  the  professional  schools, 
specialization  begins.  The  young  man  wishes  to 
become  a  specialist  as  soon  as  possible,  and  get 
"out  into  the  world"  where  he  can  "make  money." 
Consequently,  he  shuns  the  cultural  courses,  de- 
mands the  practical,  and  his  faculty  supervisors 
reluctantly  submit  to  his  desires.  The  practical 
courses  are  those  which  train  for  individual  pecun- 
iary efficiency.  Public  welfare  efficiency  is  slighted, 
and  education  becomes  partly  unpatriotic,  and  de- 
structive of  the  best  types  of  human  welfare.  More- 
over, the  young  man  in  insisting  upon  avoiding  the 
cultural  is  building  the  foundations  of  life  upon 
narrow  bases;  his  own  possibilities  of  personality 
development  are  cramped  if  not  cut  short. 

School  groups  have  originated  in  private  initia- 
tive. Strong  and  effective  institutions  of  higher 
learning  have  been  established  as  a  result  of  the 


258  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

enterprise,  particularly,  of  religious  leaders ;  in  fact, 
nearly  all  the  privately  endowed  universities  and 
colleges  in  the  United  States  were  so  created. 

Moreover,  society  has  recognized  the  social  values 
in  education  by  establishing  vast  public  school 
systems,  crowned  by  state  universities,  on  com- 
pulsory bases.  Even  democracies  so  thrive.  In 
the  United  States  the  annual  cost  of  maintaining 
the  public  school  system  has  long  since  passed  the 
billion  dollar  figure. 

The  development  of  colleges,  universities,  profes- 
sional schools,  and  special  foundations  gives  oppor- 
tunities for  advanced  education  and  research  work, 
and  increases  the  number  of  inventions.  It  is  in 
these  highest  phases  of  research  that  one  of  the 
main  driving  forces  in  education  becomes  evident, 
namely,  the  inquisitive  tendencies.  All  normal  hu- 
man beings  desire  to  know  the  answers  to  problems. 
Curiosity  can  easily  be  aroused.  In  research  work 
the  curiosity  impulses  express  themselves  unremit- 
tingly in  the  attempts  which  individuals  make  in 
searching  for  solutions  to  intricate  problems,  chem- 
ical, mechanical,  philosophical,  sociological,  and  the 
like.  The  child  is  no  less  inquisitive  but  his  curi- 
osity expresses  itself  in  more  personal  and  on  the 
whole  superficial  ways. 

While  education  may  take  cognizance  of  the  play, 
curiosity,  and  similar  attitudes,  in  fact,  may  be  built 
upon  them,  it  is  incomplete  unless  it  trains  pupils 


THE  EDUCATIONAL  GROUP  259 

to  do  some  things  which  are  uninteresting  and  even 
unpleasant.  Education  based  only  on  desires  and 
favorable  attitudes  is  inadequate.  Daily  life  con- 
tains unpleasant  tasks ;  and  hence,  the  child  may 
advantageously  learn  to  face  some  disagreeable 
tasks  with  a  degree  of  stoicism. 

The  most  difficult  problem  confronting  the  school 
is  that  of  teaching  group  and  social  responsibility. 
For  the  child  to  learn  verbatim  the  Constitution  of 
the  nation  does  not  in  itself  go  far  in  the  making 
of  good  citizens.  The  children  need  to  be  taught 
the  significance  of  becoming  good  neighbors,  good 
fathers  and  mothers,  and  good  citizens — by  doing 
neighborly,  fatherly  or  motherly,  and  citizenship 
acts  regularly.  The  teaching  of  this  social  responsi- 
bility is  as  important  as,  if  not  more  important 
than,  the  teaching  of  the  trades  and  of  methods  of 
making  a  livelihood.  The  schools  need  to  overcome 
the  failure  of  parents  to  perform  intelligently  their 
parental  duties  and  to  create  an  intelligent  appre- 
ciation of  group  responsibility.  The  schools  should 
concern  themselves  first  of  all  with  training  a  new 
race  of  parents. 

Another  socially  important  problem  is  that  of  sex 
education.  The  ignorant  and  vicious  perversion  of 
the  sex  impulses  as  manifested  in  illegal  sex  rela- 
tions, false  marriages,  and  the  divorce  evil  consti- 
tute a  set  of  precarious  conditions  for  human  so- 
ciety. Segregated  talks  on  sex  hygiene  are  inade- 


260  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

quate.  The  best  solution  for  the  problem  has  been 
found  in  treating  sex  matters  naturally  as  phases 
of  the  regular  discussions  in  courses  in  botany  and 
zoology. 

Industrial  education  and  vocational  guidance  are 
enabling  children  to  find  themselves  vocationally. 
There  is  danger,  however,  of  forgetting  that  the 
chief  value  in  learning  a  trade  is  that  the  child 
may  discover  himself.  He  should  have  an  occupa- 
tion, not  primarily  for  the  purpose  of  earning  a 
living,  essential  as  that  is,  but  in  order  that  he  may 
through  his  occupation  develop  himself  to  the  full- 
est possible  personal  extent  and  usefulness.  To 
teach  a  trade  for  the  primary  purpose  of  developing 
individual  success  may  prove  to  be  anti-social.  A 
person  who  has  attained  high  individual  efficiency 
but  who  has  not  learned  to  work  well,  that  is,  un- 
selfishly, in  society  is  dangerous. 

The  continuation  school  is  performing  a  worthy 
social  function.  If  all  boys  and  girls  would  attend 
school  a  few  hours  each  day  throughout  their  ado- 
lescent years,  until  eighteen  years  of  age,  the  in- 
creased capacities  would  more  than  counterbalance 
the  cost.  Besides,  society  could  thus  exercise  a 
wholesome  influence  and  guidance  over  thousands 
of  adolescents  who  now  are  thrown  into  an  adult 
environment  and  surrounded  by  full-fledged  and 
vicious  temptations  while  yet  immature  and  with 
only  partial  control  over  turbulent  passions. 


THE   EDUCATIONAL   GROUP  261 

The  visiting  teacher  is  a  relatively  new  term  but 
one  that  possesses  social  significance  of  wide  import. 
To  the  multitude  of  homes  of  the  poorer  classes, 
the  visiting  teacher  can  carry  scientific  knowledge 
concerning  the  proper  care  of  children  during  their 
first  six  years  of  life,  before  the  children  come  under 
public  supervision.  Countless  children  are  so  hand- 
icapped by  lack  of  adequate  care  in  their  homes 
that  when  they  reach  the  public  schools  at  the  age 
of  six,  "they  are  not  in  a  fit  condition  to  have  public 
money  spent  upon  them."  Countless  others  die 
needlessly  during  the  first  years  of  life. 

The  visiting  teacher  can  carry  to  the  homes  of 
the  less  fortunate  in  the  community  a  knowledge  of 
sanitary  living  conditions,  of  the  best  purchasing 
methods,  and  of  home  making.  Large  numbers 
of  people  are  still  living  in  darkness  as  far  as  their 
knowledge  of  sanitation,  bacteriology,  and  sound 
health  is  concerned. 

The  visiting  teacher  is  a  boon  in  immigrant 
neighborhoods.  She  can  carry  not  only  knowledge 
but  the  American  spirit  into  the  homes  of  immi- 
grants whose  wholesome  contacts  with  American- 
ism are  few.  To  the  immigrant  mother  with  her 
slight  opportunities  to  know  American  life  and  in- 
stitutions, the  visiting  teacher  is  an  angel  of  mercy, 
inspiration,  and  knowledge.  As  an  Americanization 
teacher  she  is  unsurpassed. 

Another  social  conception  in  education  is  that 


262  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

"the  whole  child"  goes  to  school,  and  hence  every 
phase  of  the  child's  welfare  needs  to  be  cared  for 
somehow.    The  school  is  not  to  be  considered  as  in- 
terested simply  in  the  expansion  of  the  child's  in- 
tellect.   Jatejlectual  development,  in  other  words, 
cannot  be  considered  as    something   wholly   apart 
/   from  physical,  moral,  and  even  spiritual  develop- 
/ment. 

At  the  vital  point  of  spiritual  development,  the 
average  public  school  representative  is  nonplussed. 
The  whole  child  is  not  really  being  schooled,  for 
the  training  of  the  highest  spiritual  nature  of  the 
child,  his  religious  nature,  is  being  shunned. 

The  public  school  curriculum  may  well  be  re- 
constructed. It  emphasizes  certain  self-culture 
studies,  splendid  as  far  as  they  go,  and  certain  of 
the  sciences.  The  literatures  and  languages,  in  the 
main,  represent  self-culture;  the  sciences  help  the 
individual  to  develop  control  over  natural  resources 
and  stand  for  the  development  of  individual  success 
and  power.  The  importance  of  social  studies  and  of 
the  social  emphasis  is  only  slightly  appreciated  by 
many  school  leaders  and  still  less  by  boards  of  ed- 
ucation. 

I      Any  serious  attempt,  however,  to  use  the  public 
1  school  system  as  a  vehicle  for  socialized  education 
1 1  must  be  started  in  the  grades,  because  nearly  four- 
fifths  of  the  children  who  enter  the  public  schools 
of  this  country  do  not  go  beyond  the  elementary 


THE  EDUCATIONAL  GROUP  263 

grades.  Moreover  social  studies  need  to  be  given 
a  primary  place  in  high  schools  and  normal  schools. 
The  training  for  unselfish  public  service  is  more 
important  than  any  other  phase  of  public  school 
work, — if  the  nation  is  to  consist  of  public  servants 
rather  than  harbor,  as  now,  numerous  individual 
exploiters. 

This  need  may  be  met  in  part  in  changing  the 
school  phases  of  education  from  an  acquisitive  to  a 
functional  basis.  Instead  of  emphasizing  the  ac- 
quiring of  knowledge  as  the  alpha  and  omega  of 
education,  the  new  tendency  is  to  view  education 
as  a  "learning  by  doing"  process.  He  who  would 
learn  the  best  things,  must  do  the  best,  that  is,  ren- 
der unselfish  service. 

2.  The  Newspaper  and  the  Cinema.  Through 
the  medium  of  the  public  school,  the  possibility  of 
developing  social  ideals  in  the  general  population  is 
far  greater  than  by  means  of  newspapers  and  mag- 
azines. This  statement  is  based  on  the  fact  that 
the  public  school  reaches  practically  all  the  people 
while  they  are  young  and  in  the  formative  periods 
of  life.  In  recent  years,  however,  the  cinema  by  its 
type  of  appeal  has  been  invading  the  adolescent  and 
childhood  years.  Its  influence  in  character  forma- 
tion for  good  or  ill  is  beginning  to  rival  that 
of  the  school.  Newspapers  and  magazines  will  first 
be  considered  and  then  the  cinema  as  educational 


264  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

agents. 

While  the  rise  of  the  newspaper  in  recent  decades 
has  been  meteoric  and  marvelous  in  many  ways, 
the  press  has  not  become  as  dignified  and  construc- 
tive a  social  agency  as  it  might  have  become.  In  ca- 
tering to  the  masses,  crowd  emotion,  and  the  eco- 
nomic attitudes  of  advertisers,  it  has  felt  obliged  to 
belittle  its  high  calling. 

The  newspaper,  together  with  the  telegraph,  and 
telephone,  and  other  rapid  means  of  communica- 
tion, has  created  a  wonderful  degree  of  mass  con- 
sciousness. It  has  made  a  world  consciousness  pos- 
sible; it  has  made  Paris,  London,  New  York,  and 
Peking  neighbors  of  each  other.  It  is  a  marvelous 
spectacle  to  contemplate,  namely,  a  hundred  mil- 
lion and  more  people,  leaders  in  all  parts  of  the 
world,  reading  simultaneously  about  one  national 
and  world  happening  after  another,  in  each  case 
only  a  few  hours  after  the  happening  took  place. 
Moreover,  each  of  these  readers  knows  that  all  the 
others  are  reading  about  the  same  phenomenon  at 
at  the  same  time ;  he  also  knows  in  a  general  way 
how  each  is  responding  to  the  message  or  descrip- 
tion that  he  is  reading.  The  newspaper,  therefore, 
constitutes  a  powerful  instrument  of  creating  pub- 
lic opinion,  mass  consciousness,  and  good  will  or 
ill  will. 

Today  a  million  dollars  is  hardly  sufficient  for 
establishing  a  metropolitan  newspaper  of  size.  The 


THE   EDUCATIONAL   GROUP  265 

capitalist-owner  has  supplanted  the  editor-owner. 
As  a  rule,  the  editor  is  no  longer  the  owner,  unless 
he  is  a  millionaire.  The  editor  of  the  type  of  Horace 
Greeley  or  Charles  A.  Dana  who  owns  his  paper 
and  makes  it  the  projection  of  his  character  and  per- 
sonal ideals  is  rare.  Many  editors  now  are  hired. 
They  are  not  expected  by  their  owners  to  put  their 
own  consciences  and  ideals  into  the  paper. 

The  highest  social  usefulness  of  the  newspaper 
has  been  compromised  by  commercialization.  The 
securing  of  large  financial  returns  has  become  a 
dominant  factor  in  the  publishing  of  newspapers 
today.  Therefore,  the  profit  standard  too  often 
overrules  the  human  welfare  standard. 

A  part  of  this  untoward  situation  is  the  fact  that 
a  very  large  proportion  of  the  total  receipts  in  the 
newspaper  business  are  derived  from  the  sale  of  ad- 
vertisements. The  subscriptions  represent  a  de- 
creasing percentage.  Advertising  yields  as  high 
as  two-thirds  of  the  earnings  of  the  daily  news- 
paper ;  it  may  yield  up  to  ninety  per  cent.  The  ad- 
vertiser rather  than  the  subscriber  supports  the 
newspaper. 

When  news  columns  and  editorials  become  of 
less  importance  than  the  sale  of  advertisements,  it 
becomes  true  that  the  advertisers  are  the  cen- 
sors of  the  news  and  the  editorials.  Corporations 
which  are  extensive  advertisers  are  often  referred 
to  in  newspaper  offices  as  "sacred  cows";  nothing 


266  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

in  the  news  or  editorial  columns  is  printed  that 
would  in  any  way  offend  the  "sacred  cows/'  no  mat- 
ter if  they  be  the  community's  leading  profiteers  and 
exploiters.  The  difficulty  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  sell- 
ing of  advertising  is  purely  commercial,  while  the 
printing  of  news  and  of  editorials  is  a  matter  of  de- 
mocracy and  education.  Edward  A.  Ross  has  de- 
clared that  the  modern  metropolitan  newspaper  is 
in  danger  of  becoming  a  factor  where  ink  and  brains 
are  so  applied  to  white  paper  as  to  turn  out  the 
largest  possible  marketable  product. 

It  is  clear  that  more  private  newspapers  are 
needed  which  ignore  the  dubious  influence  of  heavy 
advertisers,  and  which  will  give  the  truth  about  po- 
lice protection  to  vice,  corporate  tax-dodging,  and 
the  non-enforcement  of  laws.  The  need  for  a  nation- 
ally endowed  press  has  been  strongly  advocated  by 
writers  such  as  V.  S.  Yarros.  The  need  for  social- 
ized newspapers  whether  privately  or  publicly 
owned  is  clear.  The  public  however  is  not  aware  of 
the  true  situation  and  does  not  realize  the  degree  to 
which  it  gets  the  news  on  many  questions  in  a  pure- 
ly biased  form.  The  newspaper  owners  and  the 
public  together  can  bring  about  a  new  day  when 
public  welfare  will  be  the  test  of  newspaper  effi- 
ciency. 

The  magazine  and  journal  have  emphasized  facts 
and  thoughtful  attitudes.  In  indulging  in  muck- 
raking, certain  magazines  have  overstepped  rational 


THE   EDUCATIONAL  GROUP  267 

boundaries.  Magazines,  like  newspapers  but  in  a 
less  degree,  are  subject  to  the  influence  of  adver- 
tisers, while  journals  of  scientific  character  on  the 
other  hand  have  rendered  a  larger  measure  of  undi- 
luted social  service. 

Another  educational  agency  of  tremendous  force 
is  the  cinema.  Its  rise  to  power  has  come  since 
1905.  Its  significance  from  the  standpoint  of  amuse- 
ment and  recreation  has  been  considered  in  the 
chapter  on  the  play  group.  As  an  educational 
force  the  cinema  utilizes  indirect  suggestion  to  its 
fullest  extreme.  The  direct  suggestion  is  indescrib- 
ably great,  but  cannot  be  compared  with  the  indirect 
suggestion,  which  by  the  use  of  many  characters 
moving  rapidly  and  dramatically  before  the  eyes 
of  the  spectators  in  a  thousand  roles,  stimulates  the 
spectators  in  countless  unsuspected  ways  to  all  types 
of  activities.  If  the  spectators  are  youthful,  they 
are  thereby  unduly  subject  to  the  indirect  sugges- 
tion of  the  film. 

The  use  of  films  in  schools  and  churches  is  in- 
creasing. They  can  bring  the  farthermost  reaches 
of  the  earth  into  the  schoolroom  with  accurate  viv- 
idness. They  can  visualize  ancient  history  and  en- 
able school  pupils  to  live  over  again  events  of  his- 
toric significance  which  occurred  thousands  of  years 
ago.  They  can  personify  the  greatest  religious  ideals, 
giving  the  spectator  immeasurable  inspiration. 

The  educational  group,  whether  informal  as  in 


268  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

the  case  of  the  home  or  the  playground,  or  whether 
standardized  as  instanced  by  the  school,  is  society 
at  its  best,  that  is,  when  it  is  developing.  The  ed- 
ucational group  is  society  rising  from  level  to  level 
of  intellectual  power  and  vision.  The  educational 
group  represents  discovery  and  invention;  it  also 
stands  for  dissemination  of  ideas. 

Education  trains  the  whole  person — his  feelings, 
thoughts,  and  volitions.  It  gives  power — for  hu- 
man welfare  or  against  it.  An  educated  man  may 
become  society's  greatest  enemy.  Along  with  the 
education  of  the  intellect  therefore  must  go  develop- 
ment of  the  social  impulses  and  attitudes.  The  fang 
and  claw  spirit  of  the  jungle  still  lives  powerfully  in 
human  beings ;  it  can  be  submerged  by  the  training 
of  the  social  tendencies  of  man.  Only  through  the 
educational  process  can  habits  of  social  initiative 
and  social  dependability  be  built  up  in  human  lives. 
The  educational  group  therefore  becomes  the  center 
of  associative  progress.  In  it  is  crystallized  forces 
upon  which  all  other  human  groups  must  depend  if 
they  would  augment  endlessly  their  usefulness. 

3.  The  Educational  Process.  Civilization  is  a 
result  of  the  educational  process,  which  uses  a  vast 
variety  of  tools  and  a  marvelous  technique,  includ- 
ing language,  alphabets,  systems  of  writing,  varied 
literature,  newspapers,  social  traditions,  public 
opinions,  and  private  and  public  systems  of  educa- 


THE   EDUCATIONAL  GROUP  269 

tion.  The  educational  process  in  one  sense  begins 
with  the  thousands  of  years  of  experience  into  which 
the  individual  is  born.  Into  these  groups  and  per- 
sonal experiences  the  child  is  born,  and  from  them 
he  receives  his  fundamental  concepts  of  life.  Edu- 
cation for  the  child  consists  in  part  in  obtaining 
the  meaning  of  these  experiences.  He  receives  the 
advantages  and  disadvantages  of  the  social  heritage. 
Education  for  the  child  consists  in  part  in  his  get- 
ting the  meaning  of  the  social  heritage. 

The  first  three  years,  roughly  speaking,  of  a 
child's  life  are  spent  in  learning  muscular  co-ordi- 
nations and  elementary  meanings.  The  years  from 
three  to  twenty-three,  or  more,  are  considered  as 
the  period  in  which  the  individual  is  to  learn  the 
meaning  of  the  experiences  of  the  past  thousands 
of  years  of  racial  history.  In  this  period  he  is  to 
become  somewhat  adapted  to  his  physical  and  group 
environments.  On  the  basis  of  this  educational 
training,  the  individual  is  expected  to  proceed  by 
virtue  of  his  initiative  and  make  a  contribution  of 
some  kind  to  the  world's  culture.  At  least,  he 
should  not  be  found  among  that  "stupid  procession 
that  never  had  a  thought  of  their  own." 

The  curiosity  impulses  seem  to  be  the  leading 
sources  of  intellectual  energy  and  effort.  They  pro- 
duce man's  speculative  and  scientific  tendencies. 
The  cognitive  or  thinking  attitude  is  the  main  in- 
tellectual tool ;  reason  represents  the  highest  phase 


270  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

of  cognition.  With  it,  man  has  been  able  to  tran- 
scend physical  limitations  and  comprehend  factors 
that  are  present  in  neither  time  nor  space. 

The  study  of  the  inventions  that  the  human  mind 
has  made  is  most  fascinating.  It  is  a  story  of  the 
creative  effort  of  quick  witted  or  deep  thinking  per- 
sons, of  sharp,  vibrant  minds.  It  is  the  story  of 
the  main  lines  of  group  and  personal  advancement. 
Through  inventiveness,  the  human  group  has  ad- 
vanced from  the  dug-out  to  the  palace,  from  the 
skin  breeches  to  the  elaborate  costume,  from  the  un- 
cooked aboriginal  meal  to  the  seven-course  dinner, 
from  the  digging-stick  to  the  twenty-furrow  steam 
plow,  from  the  carrying-stick  to  overland  trains, 
and  from  the  gourd  with  a  cord  stretched  across  it, 
to  the  modern  oratorios  and  symphonies. 

To  train  all  individuals  to  imitate  well  and  to 
initiate,  to  follow  and  to  lead,  to  obey  and  com- 
mand, always  in  line  with  group  advance,  this  is 
the  educational  process.  It  is  contingent  upon  a 
communicating  system,  the  nature  and  importance 
of  which  have  been  indicated  in  Chapter  IV.  On  the 
basis  of  elemental  pantomimic  and  facial  gestures, 
and  an  elaborate  vocal  language  together  with  the 
resultant  literature,  human  groups  have  developed 
extensive  cultural  backgrounds  which  constitute  the 
child's  social  heritage.  Educationally,  it  is  the  child's 
problem  to  learn  the  meaning  of  this  group  heritage, 
to  acquire  methods  of  mental  analysis,  and  to  func- 


THE  EDUCATIONAL  GROUP  271 

tion  as  a  critic,  a  molder,  and  a  contributor  to  the 
social  heritage. 

The  leading  elements  in  social  heritage  are  the 
experiences  of  the  mind,  produced  through  inter- 
stimulation,  and  preserved  in  prose  or  poetic  litera- 
tures. Literature  is  the  best  expression  of  human 
thought  reduced  to  writing.  Its  various  forms  may 
be  considered  as  representative  of  group  peculiar- 
ities or  individual  diversities. 

In  early  human  society  the  first  formal  educators 
were  the  priests.  They  compiled  the  tribal  chron- 
icles ;  they  were  the  rhapsodists  who  celebrated  the 
prowess  of  tribal  chiefs  in  the  presence  of  the  wor- 
shipful tribal  people.  Since  man  feels  before  he 
reasons,  and  since  poetry  is  the  language  of  the 
feelings,  poetry  developed  before  prose.  Hence 
sacred  teachings  and  war  songs  became  the  first 
educational  source  materials.  Then  the  epic  records 
of  the  past  developed  and  were  supplemented  by 
the  lyrical  records  of  contemporary  events. 

The  development  of  reasoning  tended  to  deprive 
poetry  of  its  ornament  and  to  provide  man  with  a 
simpler  and  more  accurate  educational  instrument. 
Prose  of  permanent  value  soon  found  expression  in 
the  form  of  oratory,  which  reached  a  stable  level  in 
Greece.  Public  speaking  became  a  powerful  edu- 
cational force.  During  the  early  centuries  of  the 
Christian  Era,  including  the  Middle  Ages,  no  new 
educational  methods  were  produced.  The  invention 


272  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

of  the  printing  press  in  the  fifteenth  century  made 
inexpensive  books  possible.  Invention  followed  in- 
vention in  the  past  two  centuries  until  the  printing 
press,  the  telegraph,  the  telephone,  and  similar 
means  of  communication  of  ideas  have  made  edu- 
cation available  to  all.  Educational  systems  have 
supplemented  the  instruments  of  communication  so 
that  today  education  is  becoming  democratized. 

The  elements  of  the  spiritual  environment  which 
the  child  through  educational  processes  is  expected 
to  comprehend,  possesses  emotional,  intellectual, 
and  conditional  aspects.  (1)  Life  is  surrounded  on 
every  hand  by  mystery,  miracle,  and  the  unknown. 
That  which  is  not  known  far  exceeds  that  which  is 
known  and  understood.  Through  the  feeling- 
emotional  phases  of  consciousness  man  interprets 
the  mysteries  of  life,  acquires  faith  in  God,  and 
stands  up  against  the  odds  of  life  which  at  times 
are  almost  overwhelming.  This  feeling-emotional 
interpretation,  when  supported  by  reason  becomes 
poetry,  philosophy,  religion,  and  art.  These  tech- 
niques are  vehicles  of  those  things  which  are  felt  to 
be  true,  but  whose  truth  has  not  been  proved  or 
disproved.  The  child  who  early  learns  to  perceive 
the  work  of  God,  to  feel  inspired  in  the  presence 
of  God's  handiwork  and  to  take  a  place  as  an  active 
unit  in  God's  world  will  learn  to  hate  ugliness,  im- 
perfection, meanness,  littleness,  and  selfishness. 

(2)   The  intellectual  method,  using  definite  proof 


THE   EDUCATIONAL   GROUP  273 

and  struggling  for  accuracy,  has  been  called  scien- 
tific. Science  struggles  to  know  the  truth  as  exactly 
as  possible  concerning  reality.  Although  the  known 
is  but  a  small  part  of  the  unknown,  no  student  to- 
day can  hope  in  his  education  to  encompass  all 
science.  He  must  choose.  He  cannot  familiarize 
himself  with  all  the  scientific  knowledge  that  has 
been  discovered.  He  can,  however,  learn  enough 
truth  to  free  himself  from  superstition,  to  be  able  to 
go  through  life  with  an  open  mind,  and  to  get  the 
message  of  courage  and  hope  which  comes  from 
scientific  inventions  and  the  achievements  of  man- 
kind. 

The  educational  program  broadly  speaking,  ac- 
centuates both  the  feeling  side,  or  literatures ;  and 
the  reasoning  side,  or  science.  The  average  student 
scorns  one  or  the  other,  neglecting  to  see  that  a  well 
educated  person  must  be  familiar  with  the  funda- 
mental advances  that  have  been  made  by  both  sets 
of  educational  forces. 

(3)  The  child  must  learn,  not  only  to  feel  and 
to  think,  but  also  to  do.  Education  has  generally 
been  weak  in  developing  the  doing  process.  Man- 
kind, however,  has  been  active,  energetic,  and  even 
original ;  the  list  of  his  achievements  is  extensive 
and  beyond  ordinary  comprehension.  Therefore, 
the  educational  process,  whether  informal  or  formal, 
whether  operating  in  the  family  group,  the  play 
group,  the  occupational  group,  the  educational 


274  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

group,  or  in  the  religious  group  that  will  be  analyzed 
in  the  next  chapter,  must  emphasize  in  a  balanced 
way  all  three  factors,  the  affective,  cognitive,  and 
volitional,  or  else  it  will  be  incomplete  and  produce 
incomplete  personalities  and  a  one-sided  group  life. 
The  educational  process  is  an  organization  of  the 
play,  inquisitive,  self-assertive,  and  similar  tenden- 
cies of  the  individual  whereby  he  may  secure  the 
meaning  of  the  social  heritage  and  also  initiate  new 
and  socially  useful  ideas.  It  involves  work  as  well 
as  play,  and  requires  energy,  vision,  and  social  pur- 
pose. 


THE   EDUCATIONAL   GROUP  275 


PROBLEMS 

1.  Explain:    Better  than  time  to  read  is  time  to  think. 

2.  Why  are  relatively  so  few  people  engaged  in  doing  orig- 

inal thinking? 

3.  Why  do  students  "cram"  for  examinations? 

4.  What  would  be  a  better  method  than  "cramming"  for 

examinations  ? 

5.  Why  is  the  better  method  not  followed? 

6.  How  many  days  should  there  be  in  the  school  year? 

7.  What  is  education? 

8.  Do  you  see  any  values  in  being  stupid? 

9.  Explain:   Every  student  should  have  a  target. 

10.  Should  society  spend  more    money    per    capita    upon 

wealthy  or  poor  children? 

11.  What  is  educational  sociology? 

12.  What  are  the  arguments  for  and  against  a  national  uni- 

versity? 

13.  Explain:    "The  chances  of  attaining  distinction  are  190 

times  greater  for  the  college  man  than  for  the  non- 
college  man." 

14.  Under    what  conditions  is   scientific    research    socially 

valuable? 


CHAPTER  XIV 
THE  RELIGIOUS  GROUP 


AT  AN  EARLY  age  the  average  child  begins  to  feel 
the  influence  of  the  church  group.  Although  its 
direct  activities  are  confined  largely  to  one  day  in 
seven,  its  processes  are  fundamental  in  their  effects. 
The  family,  play,  occupational,  community,  and 
school  life  of  most  individuals  is  supplemented  by  a 
religious  group  life. 

1.  The  Church  Group  and  Religion.  Religious 
impulses  have  been  and  are  universal.  They  were 
common  among  primitive  tribes  and  are  found  to- 
day among  civilized  people  everywhere.  In  many  of 
their  narrow  and  bigoted  expressions  they  have  been 
socially  destructive,  but  in  their  finest  and  truest 
expressions  they  have  been  socially  helpful.  In  re- 
cent centuries  they  have  found  expression  in  church 
groups  with  elaborate  rituals,  costly  church  build- 
ings, and  powerful  social  organizations. 

To  comprehend  the  significance  of  the  church 
group  it  is  necessary  to  analyze  religious  behavior, 
which  springs  from  impulses  native  to  the  human 
mind.  The  universality  of  the  religious  attitude  is 


THE  RELIGIOUS  GROUP  277 

due  to  the  universality  of  certain  human  needs. 
There  come  times  in  every  person's  life  when  he  is 
confronted  with  the  fact  that  he  does  not  know 
very  much  after  all.  The  most  highly  educated  and 
cultured,  the  wealthiest,  the  politically  most  power- 
ful, as  well  as  the  poor  and  ignorant,  are  all  in  the 
same  category  when  it  comes  to  placing  themselves, 
their  achievements,  and  their  powers  alongside  the 
powers  of  the  universe  and  the  realms  of  the  un- 
known. Miracles  and  marvels  and  the  unexplained 
surround  man  at  every  turn.  Death  is  the  great 
conundrum,  and  life  is  filled  with  baffling  problems. 

At  best,  it  appears  that  human  beings  are  but 
little  organisms  moving  hopefully  for  a  short  mo- 
ment through  a  vast  sweep  of  mystery,  or  as  Charles 
H.  Cooley  has  put  it,  human  beings  are  like  a  party 
of  men  with  lanterns  trying  to  find  their  way 
through  a  dark,  immeasurable  forest.  To  all  ex- 
cept the  intellectually  stolid  or  foolhardy,  the  per- 
plexities of  life  sooner  or  later  are  recognized  as 
being  too  great  for  man  to  meet  out  of  his  own 
resources.  It  is  this  fact  which  explains  the  perma- 
nency of  the  religious  attitude. 

Religion,  and  later  the  church  groups,  have  de- 
veloped therefore  out  of  human  needs.  When  the 
sense  of  need  urged  primitive  man  to  attempt  to 
communicate  with  a  higher  Power,  there  religion 
made  its  appearance.  Religious  attitudes  have  de- 
veloped from  both  feelings  and  thought,  leading 


278  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

on  one  hand  to  faith,  and  on  the  other  to  intellec- 
tual attempts  to  explain  life  and  the  universe.  In 
its  essence  religion  is  a  conscious  and  co-operative 
relationship  with  the  Creator  and  Director  of  the 
universe  and  human  lives. 

Religion  at  its  best  perceives  human  society,  not 
as  an  end  in  itself  but  as  an  emergency  of  the  super- 
human, Divine,  and  eternal.  This  consideration  of 
human  life  as  an  emergency  of  an  Eternal  Person- 
ality lends  greater  value  and  an  increased  dignity 
to  human  society.  Through  religion  man  sees  him- 
self as  a  functioning  unit  of  a  social  group  far 
larger  and  more  important  than  the  living,  visible 
human  groups. 

Primitive  groups  are  essentially  religious.  In- 
numerable spirits  are  worshipped.  Man  early  con- 
ceived the  sun,  the  moon,  the  wind,  the  heavens  as 
being  like  himself  and  as  guided  by  feelings  and 
motives  similar  to  his  own.  Even  the  thunderstorm 
was  worshipped  as  a  mighty  being  which  had  power 
to  end  a  drought.  Some  objects,  called  fetiches, 
were  worshipped  not  because  of  their  intrinsic  value, 
charm,  or  power,  but  because  a  spirit  or  god  was 
supposed  to  reside  in  them.  Animals  were  wor- 
shipped ;  primitive  man  revered  them  for  the  quality 
in  which  they  excelled.  Ancestor  worship  was  com- 
mon. 

The  worship  of  innumerable  spirits  became  bur- 
densome ;  hence  spirits  were  supplanted  by  relative- 


THE  RELIGIOUS  GROUP  279 

ly  few  deities  in  religious  beliefs.  Polytheism  in  turn 
tended  to  become  a  source  of  conflicts ;  the  deities 
constituted  too  large  a  group  to  be  efficient.  Then 
it  seems  that  the  deity  of  the  leading  tribe  in  a  given 
region  became  supreme.  Here  is  found  the  begin- 
nings of  monotheisms  and  of  national  religions. 

In  early  times,  man's  religion  consisted  primarily 
in  the  religious  acts  which  he  performed  rather  than 
in  the  beliefs  which  he  held.  In  modern  days  the 
emphasis  is  often  reversed.  Sacrifices  were  invalu- 
able features  of  early  religions.  By  this  method 
the  relationships  with  the  gods  were  renewed  and 
strengthened.  Prayer  was  the  ordinary  concomi- 
tant of  the  sacrifice ;  it  was  the  means  by  which  the 
worshipper  explained  the  reason  of  his  gift,  urged 
the  deity  to  accept  it,  and  asked  for  the  help  that 
he  expected  in  return.  Worship  thus  was  a  social 
act.  It  grew  out  of  the  idea  of  group  relationships. 

There  were  few  temples,  idols,  and  no  churches 
in  the  early  human  world.  The  worship  of  nature 
and  of  natural  objects  did  not  suggest  the  enclosing 
of  a  space  for  religious  purposes.  Taboo  developed ; 
the  earthly  belongings  of  a  deity  could  not  be 
touched.  Religion  gave  strong  emphasis  to  the  so- 
cial concept  of  discipline. 

The  religion  of  the  tribal  group  developed  into 
the  religion  of  the  nation  group.  Instead  of  partisan 
tribal  gods,  a  higher  and  impartial  deity  was  con- 
ceived, who  belonged  to  and  watched  over  all  the 


280  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

tribal  groups.  New  social  bonds  developed.  There 
was  no  longer  the  tie  of  blood  which  bound  the 
people  to  their  gods ;  the  tie  became  more  spiritual 
and  more  social. 

The  Inca  religion,  Confucianism,  and  the  Isra- 
elitish  worship  of  Yahweh  or  Jehovah,  are  illustra- 
tions of  national  group  religions.  With  the  coming 
of  the  Hebrew  prophets,  religion  assumed  broader 
aspects  and  finally  culminated  in  Christianity  with 
its  claim  to  be  a  religion  fit  for  the  world  group. 
In  the  meantime,  Buddhism;  and  later,  Moham- 
medanism in  Arabia  developed:  they  also  have  es- 
sayed to  meet  the  world's  religious  needs. 

In  its  essence  Mohammedanism  holds  to  the  doc- 
trine of  the  unity  and  omnipotence  of  Allah,  and 
of  the  responsibility  of  every  human  being  to  Allah. 
The  submissive  attitude,  the  implicit  surrender,  and 
entire  obedience  to  Allah  are  emphasized.  Allah, 
however,  does  not  inspire  the  worshipper  with  ideals 
of  goodness,  although  an  influence  against  evil  is 
exerted ;  he  is  abstract.  He  does  not  come  in  close 
contact  with  people ;  he  seems  to  have  no  unselfish 
interest  in  human  welfare.  He  does  not  inspire 
persons  to  strive  after  high  individual  or  social 
ideals ;  he  does  not  seem  to  be  related  to  humanity 
and  cannot  figure  extensively  in  social  group  ad- 
vance. 

In  Buddhism  the  central  movement  of  East  In- 
dian religious  thought  culminated.  Guatama,  the 


THE  RELIGIOUS  GROUP  281 

founder,  in  his  early  manhood  began  to  realize  that 
suffering  accompanies  all  existence,  and  scorned 
a  life  of  rank  and  ease.  In  rising  from  a  period  of 
contemplation  this  remarkable  leader  proclaimed 
himself  as  Buddha,  the  Enlightened,  the  one  who 
beheld  the  true  nature  of  things.  Sorrow  and  evil 
had  lost  all  hold  on  him;  he  had  reached  emanci- 
pation by  the  destruction  of  desire.  Moreover,  if 
people  are  to  be  saved,  they  must  do  it  by  their  own 
efforts ;  they  cannot  be  relieved  of  any  part  of  the 
burden. 

Buddhism  is  based  on  the  social  concept  of  the 
equality  of  all  individuals.  All  human  beings  are 
to  be  paid  respect;  hatred  is  to  be  supplanted  by 
love ;  life  is  to  be  filled  with  kindness.  On  the  whole 
however,  Buddhism  is  not  a  positive  social  force. 
The  believer  does  not  trouble  himself  about  the 
world  but  chiefly  about  his  own  salvation.  Bud- 
dhism does  not  aim  at  an  ideal  society,  such  as  a 
kingdom  of  God.  It  checks  rather  than  fosters  en- 
terprise; it  does  not  actively  interest  itself  in  the 
advancement  of  civilization.  It  favors  a  dull  con- 
formity to  rule,  rather  than  a  free  cultivation  of 
various  gifts.  It  does  not  train  the  affections  and 
the  desires  to  virtuous  and  harmonious  individual 
and  group  action.  It  is  socially  depressing ;  it  fur- 
thers isolation  rather  than  co-operation. 

It  is  in  Christianity,  which  will  be  discussed  in 
the  remaining  sections  of  this  chapter,  that  religion 


282  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

finds  its  most  social  expressions,  and  that  church 
groups  assume  dynamic  social  obligations.  The  an- 
alysis in  this  section  hence  will  be  carried  forward 
under  the  discussion  of  the  social  principles  and 
problems  of  Christianity. 

2.  The  Social  Principles  of  Christianity.  The 
social  principles  of  Christianity  originated  in  the 
teachings  of  the  Hebrew  prophets  and  the  other 
founders  of  the  Jewish  religion;  they  received  a 
dynamic  expression  in  the  teachings  of  Jesus ;  then 
they  lay  dormant  for  centuries;  and  finally  about 
the  year  1885  they  began  to  be  re-interpreted.  For 
centuries  therefore  the  individual  and  social  impli- 
cations of  Christianity  remained  divorced.  Theology 
and  dogmatism  built  up  the  individual  principles 
of  religion  at  the  expense  of  the  social.  Jesus  ap- 
parently, on  the  other  hand,  made  them  insepa- 
rable; he  insisted  upon  the  test  of  loving  one's 
neighbor  as  a  test  of  loving  one's  God. 

Within  the  decades  since  the  social  principles  of 
Jesus'  teachings  have  been  discovered,  they  have 
been  attacked  by  entrenched  dogmatism  and  ta- 
booed by  fearful  theologians.  They  are  not  to  be 
considered  Christianity  in  themselves  but  simply 
the  "lost  tribes"  of  Christian  thought.  When  given 
their  due  emphasis  they  enable  Christianity  to  take 
the  lead  in  directing  the  solution  of  the  world's 
problems,  such  as  the  labor  and  capital  problem, 


THE  RELIGIOUS  GROUP  283 

disarmament,  unemployment,  housing,  divorce,  and 
taxation.  Christianity  could  not  prevent  the  World 
War  naturally  enough;  its  social  principles  had 
been  submerged  for  eighteen  centuries. 

Christianity  which  started  as  a  movement  within 
Judaism,  proclaimed  the  doctrine  of  perfect  rela- 
tionships between  God  and  man  on  terms  of  sym- 
pathetic and  rational  understanding.  Jesus  showed 
the  way.  He  announced  a  new  union  of  God  with 
man,  a  union  in  which  he  was  the  first  to  rejoice, 
but  which  all  persons  may  share  with  him.  The 
group  of  disciples  and  adherents  of  Jesus  afterwards 
came  to  be  known  as  the  Christian  Church.  It  be- 
came the  task  of  Saint  Paul  to  work  out  the  world 
wide  implications  of  Christianity.  In  Christianity 
it  was  expected  that  all  racial  differences  would  dis- 
appear. "In  Christ  there  is  neither  Jew  nor  Greek." 

As  Jesus  made  plain,  God  is  the  Father  and  hu- 
man beings  are  his  children  in  one  large  function- 
ing world  group.  All  that  a  person  needs  to  do  is 
to  perceive  the  truth  of  this  statement,  to  enter  the 
circle,  and  begin  to  live  socially  with  God  and  man. 
Religion  thus  becomes  the  active  communion  of 
children  with  their  Father ;  the  Father  and  children 
are  to  dwell  together  in  loving  behavior.  Religion 
is  not  a  matter  of  apparatus,  but  a  process  of  love. 
Prayer  is  necessary,  for  the  child  must  keep  in  touch 
with  his  Father.  The  process  hence  is  simple,  deep, 
broad,  and  holy. 


284  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

Christianity  in  its  essence  inspires  a  person,  not 
to  any  particular  kind  of  acts,  not  to  withdrawal 
from  the  world,  but  to  realize  his  own  great  poten- 
tialities in  and  through  group  life.  Its  ideal  of  a 
Kingdom  of  God  finds  expression  in  elemental  ways 
on  earth.  In  fact  the  perfect  society  has  begun  in 
the  personalities  of  those  who  live  socialized  lives. 
Partial  socialization  includes  living  according  to 
the  principles  of  the  brotherhood  of  man  doctrine. 
Complete  socialization  includes  living  according  to 
the  principles  of  the  brotherhood  of  man  and  of  the 
Fatherhood  of  God.  Only  in  these  two  principles 
can  one  find  complete  living ;  nothing  less  is  satis- 
factory to  the  whole  person. 

Not  only  is  Christianity  at  its  highest,  individual- 
ly satisfying,  but  it  is  socially  powerful.  Christianity 
identifies  itself  with  the  cause  of  human  freedom, 
and  tends  to  unite  all  persons  in  one  vast  group.  It 
has  taken  the  sentiments  connected  with  the  family, 
the  ideas  of  brotherhood  and  Fatherhood,  and  given 
them  the  largest  possible  group  application.  It  has 
the  possibilities  of  becoming  the  super-socializing 
force  of  all  times. 

The  kingdom  of  God  is  both  a  spiritual  and  a  so- 
cial ideal ;  the  two  elements  are  inseparable.  Those 
persons  are  mistaken  who  say  with  a  certain  Scotch 
minister:  We  are  not  here  to  make  the  world  any 
better ;  we  have  only  to  pass  through  it  on  the  way 
to  Glory.  Equally  mistaken  are  those  who  conceive 


THE  RELIGIOUS  GROUP  285 

of  the  Kingdom  of  God  as  a  social  ideal  only,  who 
are  simply  humanitarian,  who  proclaim:  Every 
man,  a  well  fed,  housed,  and  cared  for  human  being. 
The  Kingdom  lays  stress  upon  character,  love,  and 
social  ideals.  It  implies  "good  conditions,  a  perfect 
environment,  justice  for  all,  wholesome  dwellings, 
the  fair  reward  of  labor,  opportunity  for  men  to 
realize  themselves." 

As  a  social  and  spiritual  dynamic  Christianity 
has  operated  in  three  directions.  It  has  furnished 
social  ideals,  it  has  formed  character,  and  has 
evoked  service.  (1)  It  gives  new  ideals  of  life,  of  in- 
dividual, family,  and  group  life.  It  gives  a  new  in- 
terpretation to  marriage  and  has  "founded  the 
Christian  home."  It  emphasizes  the  child  as  an 
object  for  which  sacrifices  are  to  be  made.  It  sets 
up  ideals  that  are  to  transform  human  hearts  and 
the  world.  It  would  create  high-minded,  sympa- 
thetic, and  progressive  national  groups. 

(2)  "Christianity  has  produced  the  highest  type 
of  character  known  to  man,"  says  David  Watson. 
And  without  character  in  the  world  it  may  be  added, 
all  group  life  would  become  a  farce,  and  the  world 
be  destroyed.     Christianity  lays  fine  emphasis  on 
moral  qualities.    At  its  best  it  moves  peoples  from 
lives  of  selfishness,  idleness,  and  vice,  to  lives  of 
sacrifice,  fidelity,  purity,  and  strenuous  service. 

(3)  The  dynamic  of  Christian  love  has  operated 
not  only  through  high  ideals  and  sturdy  character, 


286  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

but  also  through  the  social  service  which  it  en- 
genders. It  has  stood  for  doing  good,  for  philan- 
thropic endeavors,  and  for  self  sacrificing  behavior. 
It  has  stimulated  endless  numbers  of  men  and 
women  to  accept  positions  of  social  reform  and 
political  leadership.  Nearly  every  philanthropic 
movement  in  recent  centuries  had  Christianity  as 
its  dynamic.  Countless  missionary  activities,  full 
of  deeds  of  sacrifice,  have  been  born  of  Christianity. 
Scientific  training  added  to  the  spiritual  dynamic 
of  religion  is  an  ideal  equipment  for  social  service. 
But  after  social  and  economic  programs  have 
been  fully  carried  out,  the  spiritual  dynamic  of 
religion  will  be  as  vitally  useful  as  ever.  No  social 
or  economic  program  suffices  to  abolish  sorrow,  or 
pain,  or  infirmity,  or  human  regret,  heartache,  or 
death.  The  religious  dynamic  therefore  remains  the 
greatest  social  force  of  all  time.  It  contains  the 
largest  group  idea  conceivable,  for  it  dares  to  in- 
clude living  human  beings,  those  who  have  lived 
well  and  died,  those  who  are  to  live,  and  God — all 
in  one  almost  inconceivably  large  group,  living  on 
and  ever  proving  themselves  more  socially  useful. 

3.  Socializing  Religion  and  the  Church.  Religion 
and  church  life  tend  like  all  other  forms  of  organ- 
ized life  to  become  professionalized,  to  become  nar- 
row, and  to  fail  to  adjust  themselves  to  changing 
social  needs.  As  a  result  problems  arise. 


THE  RELIGIOUS  GROUP  287 

( 1 )  A  difficult  task  is  that  of  giving  all  people  an 
appreciation  of  the  highest  attained  religious  con- 
cepts.   Underlying  this  problem  is  that  of  discover- 
ing more  religious  truth,  and  of  seeing  more  and 
more  clearly  the  relation  of  finite  life  to  the  infinite. 
But  if  present  religious  truth  and  faith  at  their 
purest  were  known,  accepted,  and  put  into  practice 
generally  by  mankind,  the  leading  world  and  per- 
sonal problems  would  be  met.    Economic  interests, 
selfish  habits,  and  even  a  blinded  intellectualism 
keep  many  people  in  Christian  lands  from  expe- 
riencing the  real  meaning  of  religion.    Low  cultural 
levels  and  narrow  religious  customs  prevent  vast 
multitudes  from  becoming  aware  of  the  highest 
religious  values. 

(2)  The  tendency  of  religion  everywhere  is  con- 
servative.    When  a  given  practice  has  once  been 
sanctioned  by  religion,  it  has  been  often  almost  im- 
possible to  eliminate  such  practice  until  long  after 
it  has  ceased  to  serve  useful  purposes.  In  the  history 
of  the  world  some  of  the  most  religious  people  have 
been  the  most  narrow-minded  and  intolerant.    The 
church  has  been  one  of  the  most  conservative  of 
group  institutions.    It  has  tended  to  identify  itself 
with  the  conditions  of  a  given  age,  and  then  to  cling 
to  old  methods  long  after  the  situation  has  changed. 

At  best  in  their  daily  living  people  fall  below  the 
religious  ideals  which  they  profess.  The  lower  im- 
pulses and  instinctive  tendencies  are  so  persistent 


288  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

and  so  subtle  in  finding  expression  at  unexpected 
moments,  that  even  the  best  representatives  of 
religious  beliefs  fail  frequently. 

Then  there  are  those  who  profess  Christianity 
but  who,  for  example,  live  as  hypocrites.  The  hy- 
pocrisy may  be  either  conscious,  or  more  or  less 
habitual  and  unconscious.  It  is  this  tendency  which 
harms  religion  immeasurably.  A  man  who  supports 
the  church  but  employs  children,  men,  and  women 
at  less  than  living  wages  is  a  concrete  example.  An- 
other illustration  is  that  of  the  lawyer  who  con- 
ducted a  Sunday  school  class  but  at  the  same  time 
for  a  fee  was  helping  a  client  to  dodge  the  inher- 
itance tax  law. 

"He  is  an  angel  at  home,"  said  the  chauffeur  for 
a  business  magnate,  "but  he  is  a  devil  in  business." 
Then  there  is  the  churchman  in  good  standing  who 
boasted  that  he  could  always  hire  unskilled  labor  at 
considerably  less  than  the  market  rate.  The  ex- 
ploited group  of  laborers,  however,  cursed  him,  and 
also  cursed  the  church.  Men  may  be  good  husbands, 
fathers,  and  church  members,  and  yet  bad  citizens, 
patriots,  and  employers,  or  employees. 

Religious,  church,  and  denominational  rivalry 
creates  harmful  impressions.  It  is  this  continual 
friction,  particularly  among  Christian  religious 
groups  that  belies  the  Christian's  profession  of 
love  and  brotherhood.  If  Christians  cannot  make 
their  brotherhood  principle  work  among  themselves, 


THE  RELIGIOUS  GROUP  289 

how  can  they  consciously  ask  unbelievers  to  accept 
their  doctrines  ?  This  is  a  common  question  that  is 
being  raised.  The  present  sectarian  divisions  are 
socially,  economically,  and  ecclesiastically  wasteful. 
Union  and  co-operation  need  to  be  substituted  for 
sectarianism.  The  community  church  is  develop- 
ing to  meet  the  emergency.  It  can  serve  not  only 
the  religious  needs  of  the  entire  community,  but  can 
also  take  the  leadership  in  re-organizing  and  build- 
ing up  the  entire  life  of  the  community. 

It  has  been  one  of  the  weaknesses  of  religion  that 
it  moves  people  as  individuals,  but  does  not  affect 
them  vitally  in  all  their  group  relationships.  The 
process  of  saving  individual  souls  has  often  failed  in 
saving  men  in  all  their  group  activities. 

The  social  service  movement  in  the  churches,  on 
the  other  hand,  was  never  intended  to  substitute 
"a  soup  and  soap  salvation"  for  spiritual  regenera- 
tion ;  neither  was  it  meant  to  provide  bait  for  en- 
ticing the  unchurched  laboring  man  into  the  house 
of  God.  Its  chief  concern  is  not  with  externalities, 
but  with  getting  the  dynamic  of  God's  love  into  all 
human  processes  and  groups.  A  religious  commun- 
ity, according  to  Harry  F.  Ward,  is  not  necessarily 
one  that  is  full  of  churches,  "each  seeking  its  own 
sectarian  development,  each  cultivating  its  own 
peculiar  formulas  and  practices.  It  is  rather  a  com- 
munity which  has  become  aware  of  its  organic  na- 
ture, which  has  found  its  soul,  repented  of  its  sins, 


290  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

come  to  conscious  realization  of  its  powers  and 
needs,  and  is  co-ordinating  its  forces,  including  its 
churches,  in  harmony  with  a  power  greater  than  it- 
self, for  the  working  out  of  its  salvation." 

A  church  is  purblind,  if  while  it  is  satisfied  with 
saving  a  few  hundred  souls,  there  are  causes  at  work 
crushing  out  the  lives  of  thousands.  While  the 
church  is  engaged  in  individual  soul  saving,  "evil 
gathers  its  corporate  power,  puts  its  hand  upon 
the  forces  of  social  control,"  and  nullifies  the 
gains  that  come  from  evangelizing  individuals. 
Preach  the  Gospel  and  the  rest  will  take  care  of  it- 
self, is  a  narrow  creed.  Any  church  which  keeps 
itself  apart  from  other  constructive  human  activities 
"is  setting  itself  off  from  God,  now  and  forever." 

It  has  been  pointed  out  that  the  custom  of  ap- 
pealing to  individuals  to  seek  personal  salvation 
first  of  all  is  to  arouse  their  selfish  interests.  A  per- 
sonal religion  that  leaves  an  individual  satisfied 
with  having  secured  the  salvation  of  his  own  soul 
is  socially  obstructive;  religion  must  go  further,  if 
it  is  to  command  true  respect,  and  call  individuals 
to  dedicate  their  lives  in  concrete  service  to  the  com- 
munity. The  truly  successful  church  is  not  the  one 
that  seeks  primarily  to  build  itself  up,  but  the  one 
which  seeks  to  build  up  the  community  in  which 
its  members  live  and  work. 

The  social  service  programs  of  the  churches  in- 
clude several  features.  (1)  They  are  based  on  the 


THE  RELIGIOUS  GROUP  291 

social  principles  of  religion,  its  group  character,  its 
social  spirit,  and  doctrines,  such  as  the  brotherhood 
of  man  and  the  Fatherhood  of  God.  They  supple- 
ment, not  supplant,  the  individual  phases  of  reli- 
gion ;  they  indicate  whether  or  not  the  individual 
is  sincere  and  intelligent  in  his  religious  protes- 
tations. 

(2)  Upon  these  social  principles  the  churches 
are  organizing  a  service    procedure,    focusing    in 
volunteer  social  service  procedure,  and  built  upon 
preliminary  surveys  of  the  church  as  a  community 
institution.    This  procedure  includes  both  an  edu- 
cational and  an  activity  program. 

(3)  The  educational  obligation  involves  social 
service  classes  in  the  church  school,  divided  between 
study  groups  and  training  groups ;  monthly  young 
people's  programs ;  missionary  society  programs ; 
and  the  Sunday  evening  service.    The  principle  is 
slowly  evolving  that  the  morning  service  may  be 
distinctly  devotional  and  worshipful  in  the  estab- 
lished sense;  and  that  the  evening  service  will  be 
likewise  devotional  and  worshipful  in  the  new  sense, 
namely,  of  considering  the  neighborhood,  national, 
and  world  problems    involved  in  the   injunction: 
Love  your  neighbor  as  yourself.    The  social  service 
director  acts  as  the  clergyman's  prime  adviser  rela- 
tive to  the  attitude  that  the  church  should  take  on 
public  questions. 

(4)  The  activity    obligation    refers  to  meeting 


292  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

neighborhood  human  needs  and  the  building  of  the 
neighborhood  into  a  community  of  forward-looking, 
forward-moving  persons  and  homes.  It  refers  to 
sending  forth  leaders  into  the  larger  community, 
such  as  the  city  or  county,  of  which  the  church 
neighborhood  is  an  organic  part.  It  also  refers  to 
activities  extending  out  through  the  nation  group 
and  the  world  group.  It  includes  the  elimination  of 
causes  which  crush  out  human  lives,  as  well  as  the 
reclamation  of  wrecked  lives. 

Since  life  is  neither  individual  nor  social  alone, 
but  both,  religion  is  neither  individual  nor  social, 
but  both;  the  social  service  attitude  is  not  the  whole 
nor  a  disconnected  adjunct,  but  an  integral  natural 
phase  of  pure,  undefiled  religion.  The  socially- 
minded  persons  outside  church  groups  and  the  in- 
dividually-minded inside  church  groups  are  neither 
representative  of  religion  at  its  best.  The  combi- 
nation of  these  two  attitudes  working  together  with- 
in the  church  presages  a  new  type  of  religious  group 
that  will  yet  transform  the  world. 


THE  RELIGIOUS  GROUP  293 


PROBLEMS 

1.  Distinguish  between  individual  religion  and  social  reli- 

gion. 

2.  What  is  socialized  religion? 

3.  What  is  social  salvation? 

4.  What  is  your  church  doing  as  a  social  service  institu- 

tion? 

5.  In  what  ways  may  religion  make  a  person  more  in- 

dividual?   More  social? 

6.  Why  are  many  religionists  intolerant? 

7.  What  forces    besides    religion    produce    high    types    of 

character? 

8.  How  is  Christianity  the  most  radical  social  force  in  the 

world  ? 

9.  What  is  the  leading  social  ideal  which  Christianity  has 

given  to  the  world? 

10.  "Is  it  an  advantage  or  disadvantage  to  Christianity  that 
it  began  among  the  working  class?" 


CHAPTER  XV 
RURAL  AND  URBAN  GROUPS 


IRRESPECTIVE  of  membership  in  any  of  the  social 
groups  which  have  been  discussed  in  the  preceding 
chapters,  every  individual  belongs  either  to  a  rural 
or  an  urban  group.  Some  persons  have  belonged  to 
rural  groups  and  are  now  members  of  urban  groups, 
or  vice  versa.  The  division  of  human  groups  into 
rural  and  urban  is  age-long  and  all-inclusive. 

1.  Rural  Groups  and  Problems.  Human  groups 
have  been  chiefly  rural.  Mankind  began  in  rural 
groups,  developed  to  the  level  of  civilization  in  rural 
groups,  and  only  in  the  last  century  began  to  shift 
to  concentrated  urban  group  formations. 

Primitive  groups  of  people  evolved  a  crude  form 
of  village  life,  but  dependent  directly  on  the  culti- 
vation of  the  soil,  the  raising  of  flocks,  and  upon  the 
chase  for  a  livelihood.  These  rural  bases  of  life 
remained  dominant,  even  after  the  rise  of  military 
strongholds,  the  establishment  of  permanent  shrines 
or  places  of  worship,  and  the  creation  of  trading 
posts.  In  the  Middle  Ages  when  commercial  centers 
surrounded  themselves  by  walls,  and  included  con- 
gested populations  living  by  commerce  and  trade, 


RURAL  AND  URBAN  GROUPS      295 

the  rural  influence  was  still  in  world  control.  With 
the  creation  of  an  industrial  population  there  came 
the  rise  of  the  modern  large  city ;  in  the  nineteenth 
century,  the  city  group  began  to  dominate  civiliza- 
tion. Although  today  several  leading  nations  are 
chiefly  subject  to  urban  influences,  the  population 
of  the  entire  world  is  still  largely  rural. 

The  history  of  mankind  seems  to  indicate  that 
any  nation  that  is  chiefly  rural  or  chiefly  urban  is 
at  a  disadvantage.  The  people  in  the  first  situation 
are  subject  to  inertia ;  and  in  the  second,  to  a  state 
of  being  smothered  by  numbers  or  else  of  being 
over-stimulated.  A  nation  somewhat  equally  sub- 
ject to  rural  and  urban  influences  is  likely  in  the 
long  run  to  prove  to  be  the  strongest. 

Rural  life  is  of  two  types:  congregated  and  iso- 
lated. In  almost  all  countries  rural  people  live  in 
villages  from  which  they  go  out,  perhaps  a  con- 
siderable distance,  in  tilling  the  soil  that  is  often 
divided  in  strips  and  cultivated  intensely.  In  the 
United  States  the  isolated  farm  dwelling  became 
the  rule  in  colonial  days,  and  has  remained  such 
to  this  day.  In  consequence  the  village  as  a  social 
group  has  degenerated.  The  isolation  of  the  rural 
dwelling  and  the  deadened  life  of  the  village  are 
both  socially  static. 

The  rural  mind  is  usually  closely  circumscribed. 
It  "measures  life  with  a  yardstick."  It  revolves 
about  a  few  people  and  their  limited  viewpoints. 


296  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

The  rural  mind  is  essentially  an  undeveloped  group 
mind ;  it  has  not  been  fully  stimulated ;  it  flares  up 
occasionally  in  feuds ;  it  has  strong  opinions,  preju- 
dices, and  faiths. 

The  rural  mind  is  highly  tinged  with  reactions 
to  nature.  It  includes  friendships  with  pet  animals, 
and  enjoyment  of  woodland  valleys  or  mountain 
crags  and  rushing  streams.  The  spectacular  dem- 
onstrations of  nature's  powers,  especially  in  storms, 
arouse  awe  and  also  create  fearful  attitudes. 

Rural  life  reflects  in  a  large  measure  the  life-giv- 
ing and  health-restoring  characteristics  of  an  out- 
door existence.  In  contrast  to  the  country  the 
cities  tear  down  the  neural  organization  of  human 
beings  at  a  fearful  rate.  While  city  life  tends  to 
wear  out  people,  country  life  is  conducive  to  the 
preservation  of  energy  and  to  long  life.  The  rural 
mind  is  built  up  on  bases  of  sturdy  strength,  physi- 
cal endurance,  continuous  physical  exercises,  free- 
dom from  nerve-destroying  speed  and  a  fast-living 
night  life.  At  its  worst  it  is  generally  crude  but 
sincere ;  it  is  frank  and  largely  wholesome. 

The  rural  group  is  a  direct  product  of  an  active 
family  group  emphasis.  The  members  of  a  rural 
family  live  together  as  a  unit ;  its  members  eat  three 
meals  a  day  at  the  same  table.  The  country  is  a 
relatively  safe  place  in  which  to  rear  children;  it 
does  not  subject  childhood  to  many  of  the  evils 
of  urban  life.  The  family  lives,  works,  and  travels 


RURAL  AND  URBAN  GROUPS  297 

together  to  picnics  and  on  holiday  excursions. 
Country  home  life  offers  a  saner  training  for  chil- 
dren than  does  the  city;  it  contains  more  genuine 
home  life,  and  has  few  false  attractions  that  draw 
the  children  and  even  the  adults  away  from  the 
home. 

The  greater  possibility  of  independence  is  an  ad- 
vantage of  the  country  over  the  city.  The  farmer, 
subject  to  sudden  weather  changes,  destructive 
frosts  or  storms,  and  losing  sometimes  the  gains  of 
a  year  because  of  fruit  or  grain  pests,  or  cattle 
plagues,  does  not  recognize  the  peculiar  independ- 
ence of  his  calling.  He  does  not  appreciate  the 
freedom  that  is  represented  by  standing  upon  a 
piece  of  land  that  he  can  call  his  own,  and  by  plan- 
ning his  day's  work,  even  a  year's  work  to  suit  his 
own  ideas.  He  does  not  appreciate  the  freedom 
from  committee  meetings,  and  from  "the  clatter  and 
clash,  the  rush  and  pandemonium  of  sound"  in  the 
midst  of  which  the  city  man  is  doomed  to  spend 
the  best  part  of  his  days. 

With  the  development  of  scientific  agriculture, 
the  farmer  is  becoming  increasingly  independent  of 
climatic  changes  and  insect  pests.  With  the  in- 
troduction of  free  mail  service,  the  telephone,  and 
the  automobile  into  rural  life  the  farmer  occupies 
a  superior  position.  His  narrow  individualism  is 
disappearing;  he  is  becoming  more  and  more  in- 
terested in  the  world's  affairs. 


298  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

While  the  farmer  has  little  chance  of  becoming 
a  millionaire,  he  usually  can  make  a  comfortable 
livelihood.  He  is  not  obliged  to  live  upon  an  im- 
ported food  supply,  as  is  the  city  man.  He  has 
plenty  of  room  for  his  dwelling;  he  is  not  forced  to 
live  as  a  cave  man  on  the  sixth  floor  of  a  dingy 
tenement,  or  to  spend  his  savings  in  becoming  a 
slave  to  fashion's  autocratic  dictation. 

The  farmer  has  the  satisfaction  of  being  a  gen- 
uine predy^er  of  the  necessities  of  life.  He  generally 
becomes  a  representative  of  the  middle  classes ; 
he  rarely  is  an  exploiter  or  grafter;  neither  does 
he  devote  his  life  to  financial  speculation. 

The  long  hours  and  hard  labor  of  the  farmer 
represent  the  exceptional  day's  work,  instead  of  the 
regular  routine  as  in  the  case  of  the  steel  worker, 
miner,  railroad  employee,  or  even  the  teamster. 
Moreover,  he  is  master  of  his  own  time.  The  in- 
troduction of  labor-saving  machinery  has  shortened 
farm  hours  and  decreased  the  difficulty  of  labor, 
and  increased  the  amount  of  leisure  time. 

The  lot  of  the  farmer's  wife  has  usually  been  and 
still  is  full  of  routine.  Many  of  the  conveniences 
and  comforts  of  city  homes  however  are  being  in- 
troduced into  rural  homes.  With  an  electric  motor 
to  operate  washing  machines,  sewing  machines,  and 
churns,  with  vacuum  cleaners,  with  electricity  and 
gas  for  cooking,  heating,  and  lighting  purposes,  the 
farm  may  become  an  attractive  place  for  the  farm- 


RURAL  AM)  URBAM  GROUPS  299 

wife  and  daughters. 
Many  fanners  are  constructing  or  reconstruct- 
ing th^  farm  dwellings  ami  prrmfyfa  esfhetically.  A 
small  lawn  with  an  artistic  arrangement  of  shrubs 
and  trees  and  of  the  driveways,  gives  rise  to  a  large 
of  individual  satisfaction  awl  gioun  pride. 


With  the  passing  of  the  unattractive,  barren  and 
drudgery  features  of  the  farm  home,  there  comes  a 
dynamic  appreciation  of  the  deeper  values  of  rural 
life. 

The  social  advantages  of  rural  fife  are  superior 
in  many  respects  to  those  of  the  city.  They  do  no* 
represent  stilted,  over-formal  attitudes;  they  do  not 
lead  to  an  enslaving  night  fife.  Rural  people  are 
generally  frank,  open,  and  genuine;  they  are  rarely 

arfffirial 

The  isolated  farm  fife  and  sleepy  village  fife  it  is 
true  lessen  the  social  advantages  of  Irving  in  the 
country.  If  the  village  in  the  United  States  could 
be  appreciated  as  a  group  institution  and  if  people 
instead  of  moving  from  one  extreme  to  another, 
that  is,  from  isolation  to  congestion,  could  perceive 
the  advantages  to  be  secured  from  pursuing  a 
middle  course,  and  develop  the  village,  they  might 
transform  the  village  into  a  community  having 
many  of  the  advantages  of  both  rural  and  urban 
life. 

The  fanner's  opportunities  to  develop  an  intel- 
lectual fife  have  been  slight.  His  reading  centers 


300  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

in  the  intensely  practical  farm  journal  and  perhaps 
the  daily  newspapers,  although  in  the  rural  districts 
of  most  countries  the  daily  is  unknown.  The  farm 
life  environment  does  not  offer  steady  inducements 
for  intellectual  study.  Nevertheless,  with  the  in- 
creasing use  of  labor-saving  machinery,  the  farmer's 
intellectual  life  will  have  larger  opportunities  for 
growth. 

The  rural  school  is  undergoing  transformations. 
Through  the  consolidated  school,  and  the  rural 
high  school,  a  new  day  for  rural  life  may  be  ex- 
pected. The  rural  school  with  adequate  education- 
al and  playground  equipment,  with  a  residence  for 
the  principal  and  his  family,  with  a  teaching  staff 
that  is  somewhat  continuous  from  year  to  year, 
and  with  a  community  and  civic  center  program, 
will  create  a  new  type  of  rural  life. 

In  many  rural  districts  the  church  has  been  fail- 
ing to  meet  the  social  situation.  The  salaries  of 
rural  ministers  have  been  ridiculously  low.  The 
rural  church  has  suffered  from  an  absentee  min- 
istry; it  cannot  progress  satisfactorily  with  non- 
resident leadership.  The  rural  minister  has  been 
a  misnomer;  he  has  been  a  clergyman  ministering 
to  a  rural  parish  but  having  his  eyes  set  upon  the 
more  desirable  city  pulpit,  especially  if  he  has  in- 
itiative and  leadership  ability;  or  else  he  has  been 
a  worn-out  city  preacher  who  has  been  transferred 
to  rural  parishes  to  spend  the  closing  years  of  his 


RURAL  AND  URBAN  GROUPS      301 

ministry.  A  specifically  trained  rural  religious 
leadership  could  transform  rural  life  and  make  re- 
ligion a  truly  dynamic  force. 

To  make  matters  worse  there  have  been  over- 
churching  and  sectarian  conflicts.  Many  small 
rural  groups  have  tried  to  support  three  or  four 
denominational  churches.  Then,  there  are  large 
numbers  of  unchurched  rural  people.  Near-by  city 
churches  with  their  high-salaried  ministers,  chorus 
choirs,  and  well-organized  church  activities  guided 
by  energetic  leaders  have  had  a  magnetic  influence 
upon  the  rural  people.  Rural  young  people  espec- 
ially have  felt  this  pull. 

The  rural  church  has  lost  a  large  part  of  the  social 
center  function  that  it  once  exercised.  Decades  ago 
the  meeting-house  was  the  only  place  for  social  in- 
tercourse. Today  with  good  roads,  automobiles, 
and  interurban  lines,  the  rural  church  is  no  longer 
the  only  place  or  the  chief  place  at  which  people 
can  meet  for  a  social  time. 

The  rural  pastor,  if  properly  trained,  is  in  a 
strategic  leadership  position.  In  addition  to  a  mod- 
ern religious  training,  he  should  be  well  versed  in 
sociology,  that  is,  in  a  knowledge  of  the  laws  of 
human  nature,  group  life,  and  social  processes.  He 
should  understand  the  technique  of  making  com- 
munity surveys  and  community  case  histories;  he 
should  be  trained  in  methods  for  making  the  church 
a  leader  among  rural  institutions.  The  rural  church 


302  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

requires  socialization;  it  must  treat  of  community 
salvation  as  well  as  individual  regeneration. 

If  the  rural  school,  the  rural  church,  the  Grange, 
and  other  institutions  would  co-operate  and  work 
together  toward  dynamic  community  ends,  they 
could  make  the  country  so  attractive,  that  the 
ablest  young  people  who  now  flock  to  the  cities, 
would  stay  and  add  the  force  of  their  abilities  to  the 
process  of  redeeming  and  magnifying  the  rural  com- 
munity. 

Many  studies  have  been  made  of  rural  commun- 
ity life  and  rural  organization  which  show  the  im- 
portance of  scientific  methods  in  studying  rural 
needs.  They  indicate  that  the  ideal  unit  for  rural  so- 
cial organization  is  an  area  varying  from  thirty  to 
fifty  square  miles,  according  to  the  section  of  the 
country.  This  area  may  or  may  not  coincide  with 
the  township.  In  many  parts  of  the  United  States, 
it  is  represented  today  by  the  consolidated  school 
district.  It  usually  contains  one  or  more  trade 
centers,  one  or  more  religious  centers,  community 
halls,  and  four  or  five  neighborhoods,  in  each  of 
which  there  are  from  ten  to  fifty  families. 

The  scientific  study  of  rural  group  processes  is 
known  as  rural  sociology.  This  science  which  has 
been  developing  in  the  United  States  points  the 
way  to  an  new  era,  not  only  for  rural  groups  but 
also  for  the  national  group  in  which  rural  people 
function  vitally.  The  two  main  principles  of  rural 


RURAL  AND  URBAN  GROUPS  303 

sociology  have  already  been  presented;  they  are 
represented  by  the  fundamental  concepts,  rural 
leadership  and  rural  social  organization. 

2.  Urban  Groups  and  Problems.  Urban  groups 
as  common  phenomena  have  developed  in  the  last 
century.  They  are  the  products  of  complex  social 
forces.  They  have  often  originated  in  trade  foci 
such  as  those  located  at  "breaks"  in  transportation 
lines  or  near  the  centers  of  agricultural  or  mineral 
resources.  Sometimes  they  are  a  product  chiefly  of 
population  momentum ;  again,  they  have  been  pro- 
duced by  modern  industrial  and  commercial  enter- 
prise. Nearly  all  cities  have  profited  greatly  by  an 
immigration  of  rural  people  whose  ambitious  eyes 
have  been  caught  by  the  flash  of  urban  opportuni- 
ties. In  all  cases,  the  city  has  been  built  up  out  of 
the  appeal  which  it  has  offered  to  the  gregarious 
impulses. 

In  1790  in  the  United  States,  only  about  three 
per  cent  of  the  population  lived  in  urban  groups  of 
8,000  or  more  people.  Today  over  one  half  of  the 
population  is  congregated  directly  under  urban 
group  influence.  In  1800,  there  were  only  five  cities 
in  the  United  States  which  had  a  population  of  10,- 
000  or  more;  in  1900,  a  century  later,  there  were 
447  such  cities.  The  urban  and  suburban  popu- 
lation of  the  United  States  is  increasing  much  more 
rapidly  than  the  rural  population. 


304  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

The  growth  of  urban  communities,  as  illustrated 
in  the  preceding  paragraph,  is  doubtless  due  to  a 
variety  of  factors.  (1)  As  it  grows,  the  city  makes 
an  appeal  of  increasing  strength  to  the  gregarious 
impulses.  The  social  contacts  in  cities  are  numerous 
and  compelling.  The  ordinary  person  is  afforded 
pleasure  simply  by  seeing  people,  even  if  he  does 
not  know  more  than  two  or  three  persons  in  a  large 
group. 

(2)  The  amusement  and  recreational  facilities  in 
cities  are  influential  factors.    The  city   worker  is 
able  to  "go  out"  every  evening.     Commercialized 
amusements,  by  specializing  in  making  appeals  in 
every  conceivable  way  to  the  feelings,  sentiments, 
play  tendencies,  and  gainful  impulses  of  children 
and  adults  alike,  are  effective  drawing  factors.    By 
making  cities  their  main  headquarters,  commercial 
amusements  are  important  factors  in  urbanizing 
people. 

(3)  The  invention  of  machinery,  the  increasing 
use  of  steam  power,  and  the  application  of  capital 
in  commercial  and  industrial  enterprises  have  cre- 
ated gigantic  manufacturing  plants.  These  institu- 
tions possess  a  gregarious  appeal.    For  the  sake  of 
working  side  by  side  with  many  other  persons,  men 
will  forego  the  more  pleasant  but  somewhat  isolated 
manner  of  rural  work.    Thus,  large  scale  production 
has  furthered  the  growth  of  cities. 

(4)  The  development  in  methods  of  transporta- 


RURAL  AND  URBAN  GROUPS  305 

tion  and  communication,  the  increased  desire  for 
communication,  and  the  facilities  which  cities  offer 
for  satisfying  the  desire  for  communication  are 
causal  factors  in  urban  development.  The  compact- 
ness of  cities  affords  an  individual  a  countless  num- 
ber of  daily  opportunities  to  communicate. 

(5)  The  city  offers  superior  educational  advan- 
tages.   Until  recently  all  high  schools  were  in  cities. 
The  elementary  schools  are  better  equipped  and 
developed  than  in  the  country ;  normal  schools,  col- 
leges, and  trade  schools  are  located  in  cities.    Prom- 
inent people  give  lectures  and  addresses  in  urban 
centers.    The  highest  paid  clergy  are  found  in  cities. 
The  libraries  are  located  in  cities;  operas  and  art 
exhibits  are  urban  productions. 

(6)  There  is  better  opportunity  for  personal  ad- 
vancement in  cities  than  in  rural  districts.    Modern 
business  and  commerce  draw  young  men   to   the 
cities,  offering  the  chance  of  becoming  wealthy. 
Educational  leaders  achieve  high  positions  in  cities. 
In  all  lines  the  possibilities  of  advancement  in  cities 
far  eclipse  the  opportunities  for  power  and  honor 
in  the  country. 

The  urban  group  is  a  loose  organization  of  people 
living  compactly  in  a  limited  geographic  area  and 
possessing  a  relatively  high  degree  of  intercommun- 
ication. Industrial  and  business  pursuits  com- 
prise the  main  lines  of  activity.  Inasmuch  as  the 
people  are  removed  from  agricultural  enterprise 


306  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

and  from  direct  contact  with  nature,  they  tend  to 
live  in  an  artificial,  man-made  world.  As  a  result  of 
this  emphasis  they  are  subject  to  superficiality  and 
assume  to  be  what  they  are  not.  Urban  "so- 
ciety" is  noted  for  its  wastefulness,  high  life,  and 
uselessness. 

The  urban  group  is  developing  a  reputation  for 
"namelessness."  Its  citizens  meet  and  speak  with- 
out knowing  each  other's  names.  One  may  live  a 
year  or  more  in  the  city  and  not  know  personally 
one-half  the  people  whose  homes  are  located  in  the 
same  city  block. 

Homelessness  has  already  been  mentioned  as  a 
disturbing  characteristic  of  cities.  The  boarding- 
house  life  of  the  city  does  not  permit  the  develop- 
ment of  real  homes.  An  automobile  first  and  a 
home  afterward,  or  perhaps  never,  is  frequently  the 
urban  man's  slogan.  To  give  to  children  a  genuine 
home  life  on  the  sixth  floor  of  a  flat  with  hallways 
and  flights  of  stairs  as  the  only  play  space  is  almost 
impossible.  A  husband  and  wife  with  pet  bulldogs 
can  rent  elegant  quarters  with  ease,  but  not  so  if 
they  possess  a  family  of  boys.  The  city  environ- 
ment often  puts  a  premium  upon  childlessness  and 
thus  encourages  its  own  destruction. 

Class  distinctions  characterize  the  city.  The 
worst  crooks  and  the  highest  organized  forms  of 
religion  are  to  be  found  in  cities.  The  direst  pov- 
erty often  exists  in  the  shadow  of  the  most  elegant 


RURAL  AND  URBAN  GROUPS      307 

mansions,  while  the  highest  creative  work  and 
chronic  unemployment  are  alike  urban  character- 
istics. 

The  city,  especially  the  American  city,  is  char- 
acterized by  energy.  Young  ambitious  people  set 
a  tremendous  pace  both  by  day  and  night.  The 
stimulation  and  inter-stimulation  are  endless,  but 
generally  on  superficial  planes.  The  pace  soon  ex- 
ceeds the  ability  of  the  human  organism  to  main- 
tain; hence  cities  have  been  called  consumers  of 
population.  They  stimulate  individuals  to  almost 
inconceivable  achievements,  but  often  at  tremen- 
dous sacrifice. 

Interdependence  is  pushed  to  a  high  degree  in 
cities.  The  average  individual  is  utterly  dependent 
with  reference  to  the  purity  of  the  water  supply  or 
the  milk  supply.  Preventable  diseases  mow  down 
whole  areas  of  city  populations.  Highly  organized 
fire  and  police  departments  become  essential,  while 
traffic  officers  are  needed  to  keep  people  out  of  each 
other's  way,  or  from  destroying  one  another  ac- 
cidentally. 

The  rural  community  furnishes  deeply  genuine 
attitudes,  nerve  stability,  an  indifference  to  luxury, 
and  vast  undeveloped  ability ;  the  urban  group  of- 
fers social  stimulation  and  opportunities  for  rapid 
personal  advance,  for  significent  creative  efforts, 
and  for  complex  social  organization.  In  so  doing 
the  city  however  exacts  a  terrific  toll  of  neural 


308  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

energy. 

The  national  group  that  is  characterized  by  so- 
cial prevision  will  safeguard  its  rural  groups  from 
disintegration  by  providing  for  the  training  of  ad- 
equate rural  leadership  and  for  comprehensive  ru- 
ral social  organization;  it  will  endeavor  to  trans- 
form its  village  groups  into  active  intermediaries 
between  rural  and  urban  life,  providing  through 
them  many  of  the  advantages  of  urban  life  with 
little  of  the  neural  wear  and  tear  for  which  cities  are 
noted ;  and  it  will  strive  to  make  its  cities  into  so- 
cial groups  where  only  natural  home  life  prevails, 
where  people  are  stimulated  to  do  their  best  but 
not  at  the  expense  of  the  lives  of  other  persons  and 
where  individuals  are  dominated  only  by  social  at- 
titudes. 

PROBLEMS 

1.  In  what  ways  is  a  rural  population  useful  to  a  nation? 

2.  Why  is  there  a  dearth  of  leadership  in  rural  commun- 

ities? 

3.  What  disadvantages  of  rural  life  are  inherent? 

4.  Who  need  the  better  schools,  urban  or  rural  children? 

5.  In  what  sense  are  cities  consumers  of  population? 

6.  Why   are  cities   overcrowded? 

7.  Should  a  law  be  passed  in  this  country  permitting  an 

individual  or  a  corporation  to  own  not  more  than 
a  certain  acreage  of  tillable  land,  perhaps  500  acres? 

8.  Should  a  law  be  passed  prohibiting  any  further  advances 

in  rent? 

9.  What  is  a  city  for? 

10.  How  might  a  village  be  made  an  ideal  social  group? 


CHAPTER  XVI 
RACIAL  GROUPS 


IRRESPECTIVE  of  membership  in  any  of  the  social 
groups  that  have  already  been  analyzed,  every  per- 
son is  a  member  of  a  racial  group  or  of  racial  groups. 
He  is  also  subject  to  racial  traditions,  prejudices, 
and  pride.  While  the  human  race  undoubtedly  had  a 
common  origin  in  regions  extending  roughly  from 
the  present  territory  of  England  to  Java,  it  early 
subdivided  into  groups  which  wandered  in  various 
directions.  These  groups  settled  in  and  populated 
the  inhabitable  parts  of  the  globe.  As  a  result  of 
different  environmental  conditions,  primarily  phys- 
ical and  climatic,  and  secondarily  social  and  psy- 
chical, these  groups  became  differentiated  from  each/ 
other.  With  the  rise  of  ethnology  they  have  been 
designated  by  different  racial  terms.  Racial  groups 
are  in  a  sense  the  product  of  migration  activities, 
which  have  never  ceased,  but  have  appeared  in 
various  forms  and  have  resulted  in  continual  proc- 
esses not  only  of  making  races  but  also  of  re-mak- 
ing races. 

1.  Migration  phenomena.    Every  social  group  is 


310  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

composed  of  two  factors :  the  persons  who  are  born 
within  the  group ;  and  those  who  are  born  in  some 
other  group,  and  later  have  migrated  into  the  spe- 
cific group.  The  causes  of  this  migration  vary 
greatly  and  yet  fall  into  a  few  classes. 

Man  has  always  been  a  wanderer  upon  the  face 
of  the  earth.  Since  earliest  times  he  has  wandered 
to  and  fro  in  search  of  a  better  living.  He  has  ever 
been  prone  to  transfer  his  allegiance  from  one  group 
to  another;  he  has  always  been  more  or  less  dis- 
satisfied with  his  situation  at  any  given  time ;  and 
has  felt  that  if  he  were  elsewhere  he  would  have  a 
better  opportunity  and  be  happier.  Civilization 
seems  to  be  made  up  of  many  persons  in  whom 
this  spirit  of  unrest  and  dissatisfaction  is  inherent. 
In  fact  persons  who  are  easily  satisfied  have  rarely 
progressed;  civilization  itself  is  a  product  largely 
of  aspiring,  hopeful,  energetic  human  attitudes.  Mi- 
gration is  one  type  of  activity  which  the  human 
longing  for  larger  opportunity  sometimes  takes. 

The  leading  single  cause  of  migration  is  economic, 
that  is,  the  desire  to  make  a  better  living.  Among 
primitive  peoples,  hunger  was  a  primary  force  which 
set  the  human  race  in  motion.  Today  the  immi- 
grant has  virtually  become  "a  seller  of  labor  seek- 
ing a  more  favorable  market."  Since  the  economic 
advantages  of  the  United  States,  Canada,  Argen- 
tina, Australia,  New  Zealand,  and  Brazil  have  been 
striking,  these  countries  during  the  past  century 


RACIAL  GROUPS  311 

have  been  the  chief  immigration  countries  of  the 
world.  Political  oppression,  religious  persecution, 
adventuresomeness,  and  the  desire  to  join  relatives 
have  been  other  causes  of  migration. 

Migration  was  first  characterized  by  aimless 
wandering,  as  in  the  case  of  primitive  tribes  moving 
up  and  down  valleys  in  search  of  food  for  them- 
selves and  their  flocks.  It  then  sometimes  expressed 
itself  as  a  mass  wandering,  in  which  a  whole  popula- 
cion  moved  slowly  from  one  section  of  the  earth 
to  another,  notably  the  movement  of  the  Huns  into 
Europe.  Migration  was  sometimes  forced ;  weaker 
peoples  or  offending  groups  have  been  exiled  or 
driven  out  of  one  country  and  compelled  to  seek 
refuge  elsewhere.  Then  there  came  a  period  known 
as  colonization,  when  for  three  centuries  or  more 
nations  sent  out  officially  groups  of  peoples  as  col- 
onists to  occupy  land  and  set  up  a  colonial  govern- 
ment in  the  name  of  the  parent  country.  This 
movement  has  been  furthered  by  nations,  such  as 
England,  France,  Germany,  Spain,  Holland,  Bel- 
gium, Russia,  and  Italy.  It  practically  came  to  an 
end  several  decades  ago,  but  not  until  "immigra- 
tion" had  become  the  characteristic  form  of  migra- 
tion. 

Immigration  is  an  unofficial  movement  of  peo- 
ple, either  as  individuals  or  families,  who  on  the 
basis  of  their  own  initiative  are  moving  from  one 
established  country  to  another  established  country, 


312  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

although  usually  a  newer  country,  for  the  purpose  of 
improving  their  living  conditions.  Whenever  the 
economic  advantages  of  two  countries  are  notice- 
ably unequal,  population  will  flow  to  the  more  fa- 
vored nation.  When  these  advantages  become  some- 
what equalized,  the  population  movement  slows  up. 
As  the  newer  countries  of  the  world  have  become 
populated,  their  free  lands  occupied,  and  their 
natural  resources  exploited,  immigration  as  a  mod- 
ern phenomenon  has  decreased. 

There  are  still  millions  of  people,  however,  liv- 
ing for  example  in  India  and  other  parts  of  Asia 
in  direst  poverty  who  if  they  learned  of  civilized 
America  and  Europe  and  had  the  means  would 
form  a  wave  of  immigration  that  would  swamp 
Western  peoples.  Consequently,  legislative  barriers 
have  been  put  up.  These  constitute  another  reason 
for  the  decline  in  immigration. 

Migration  is  also  a  phenomenon  of  importance 
within  a  nation ;  people  are  moving  from  the  coun- 
try districts  to  the  city,  and  others  "back  to  the 
land."  Some  are  migrating  from  one  rural  com- 
munity to  another;  some  from  city  to  city  or  from 
one  part  of  a  city  to  another  part  of  the  same  city. 
Withal,  intra-migration  is  a  complex,  continual 
phenomenon. 

By  virtue  of  the  fact  that  the  person  who  changes 
groups  takes  with  him  a  set  of  customs  different 
from  that  in  the  group  to  which  he  goes,  many 


RACIAL  GROUPS  313 

problems  are  caused.  The  greater  is  this  difference 
in  customs,  standards  of  living,  types  of  govern- 
ment, personal  and  group  viewpoints,  the  larger 
and  greater  the  problems  engendered  by  the  trans- 
fer of  people  from  one  group  to  another. 

The  industrial  problems  which  arise  in  connec- 
tion with  immigration  begin  with  the  need  of  mak- 
ing economic  adjustments.  The  immigrant  often 
experiences  considerable  difficulty  for  a  period  of 
time  before  he  finds  pleasant  work  which  pays  liv- 
ing wages.  To  the  extent  that  the  conditions  under 
which  he  works  are  favorable  does  the  immigrant 
learn  to  love  the  new  country  and  desire  to  become 
a  citizen.  If  he  is  exploited  or  mistreated,  he  be- 
comes suspicious  and  a  sense  of  injustice  rankles  in 
his  mind. 

In  the  United  States  the  immigrant  is  carrying 
the  burden  of  labor  in  the  coal  mines,  the  cotton 
mills,  the  woolen  mills,  the  clothing  manufactures, 
the  slaughtering  and  meat-packing  industries,  the 
manufacture  of  shoes,  furniture  manufactures, 
leather  manufactures,  and  the  refining  of  sugar.  In 
all  these  activities,  "the  foreigner  has  a  monopoly 
of  the  dangerous,  the  dirty,  and  the  odorous  trades." 
Moreover,  industrial  accidents  are  numerous,  and 
the  brunt  of  them  has  fallen  upon  the  immigrant 
and  also  upon  his  family.  In  the  matter  of  compen- 
sation for  injuries  the  immigrant,  or  his  family,  has 
in  many  cases  received  almost  nothing. 


314  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

Immigrants  commonly  suffer  housing  and  health 
difficulties.  They  usually  go  to  live  with  relatives, 
causing  overcrowding.  In  the  United  States  the 
influx  of  immigrants  for  several  decades  has  usually 
been  to  the  overcrowded  sections  of  the  population 
centers.  Poor  health  conditions  accompany  inade- 
quate housing.  The  immigrant  is  at  a  great  dis- 
advantage in  a  strange  country,  especially  if  he  and 
his  family  must  live  where  sanitation,  plumbing, 
ventilation,  air  space,  and  other  normal  health  con- 
ditions are  not  found,  or  exist  only  to  a  small  de- 
gree. 

The  social  problems  of  the  immigrant  are  also 
serious.  If  he  does  not  know  the  language  of  the 
adopted  country,  he  is  isolated  from  coming  in  con- 
tact with  its  culture.  A  great  barrier  naturally 
exists  between  immigrants  and  natives  where 
neither  group  speaks  the  language  of  the  other. 
Misunderstandings  thus  easily  arise,  leading  to 
conflicts.  The  stranger,  foreigner,  and  immigrant 
are  generally  regarded  with  prejudice.  This  sen- 
timent expresses  itself  in  a  condescending  attitude, 
scorn,  and  sometimes  in  open  derision.  The  prob- 
lem emerges  in  social  situations  where  race  conflict 
or  assimilation  are  the  main  phenomena.  The  so- 
cial problems  resulting  from  migration  will  be  pre- 
sented in  the  remaining  sections  of  this  chapter  in 
the  analyses  of  racial  conflicts,  assimilation,  and 
amalgamation. 


RACIAL  GROUPS  315 

2.  Racial  Conflicts.  Wherever  racial  groups 
markedly  different  exist  together,  race  problems 
may  become  insuperable.  They  are  usually  caused 
by  physical  differences,  and  by  economic  and  social 
competition.  The  first  cause  is  racial,  originating 
in  different  climatic  and  biologic  backgrounds.  The 
second  cause  springs  up  whenever  leading  members 
of  the  less  developed  race  begin  to  advance  beyond 
the  less  efficient  persons  in  the  more  advanced  race, 
and  when  representatives  of  the  lower  race  begin  to 
demand  social  equality  with  the  higher  race. 

In  the  United  States  the  presence  of  millions  of 
Negroes,  representing  a  population  several  times  as 
large  as  the  entire  population  of  the  nation  when 
Washington  was  president,  has  created  a  race  fric- 
tion which  developed  with  peculiar  force  during 
the  post-slavery  days  and  which  the  World  War 
for  democracy  and  the  post-war  hysteria  have 
fanned  into  almost  uncontrolled  flames.  The  Negro 
soldiers  to  the  number  of  400,000  were  in  the  Amer- 
ican Expeditionary  Forces ;  one-half  of  this  number 
went  to  France.  They  understood  that  they  were 
fighting  for  democracy.  To  their  surprise  they 
found  that  the  color  line  was  not  drawn  in  France 
and  Italy,  especially  among  the  peasant  peoples 
of  these  countries;  but  to  their  chagrin  upon  re- 
turning to  the  United  States  the  color  line  was 
drawn  tighter  than  when  they  went  to  Europe.  This 
chagrin  spread  among  the  Negroes  and  culminated 


316  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

in  a  troublesome  social  unrest,  which  was  countered 
by  a  revival  of  Ku  Klux  Klan  activities.  This  move- 
ment has  used  fear,  which  rarely  eliminates  causes, 
and  which  often  stimulates  an  increased  degree  of 
race  friction. 

One  main  attitude  toward  the  Negro  situation  in 
the  United  States  was  ably  represented  by  Booker 
T.  Washington,  who  urged  first  industrial  efficiency 
among  the  Negroes  and  then  professional  efficiency. 
In  social  relations  the  races  are  to  remain  separate 
as  the  fingers  of  the  hand,  but  in  other  matters  to 
work  together.  By  showing  his  worth,  the  Negro 
will  be  able  to  undermine  the  prejudice  against  him. 

The  white  man  in  turn  has  a  definite  responsi- 
bility, which  consists  in  being  willing  to  recognize 
true  worth,  ability,  and  personality  wherever  they 
may  be  found,  irrespective  of  race  or  color.  In  a 
democracy  such  as  the  United  States  the  white  man 
must  be  willing  to  give  the  Negro  the  vote  as  soon 
as  he  is  qualified.  The  mere  fact  that  a  person  is 
born  in  this  country  and  has  reached  twenty-one 
years  of  age  is  no  guarantee  that  he  is  a  competent 
voter.  An  educational  test  would  be  meritorious, 
providing  it  had  to  be  passed  by  all  persons  alike, 
Indians,  Caucasians,  and  Negroes,  and  also  by  im- 
migrants. When  the  Negro  reaches  a  high  educa- 
tional level  the  birth  rate  of  the  race  will  probably 
drop  to  that  of  the  white  race ;  and  political  justice 
can  be  rendered  without  creating  special  problems 


RACIAL  GROUPS  317 

of  insuperable  difficulty. 

In  turn,  the  Negro  has  a  special  responsibility, 
namely,  of  resting  his  case  upon  achievement  rather 
than  upon  boasting.  Race  friction  is  always  caused 
by  the  less  developed  race  tending  to  flaunt  its  suc- 
cesses before  the  members  of  the  more  developed 

group- 
Lynching  needs  to  be  considered  as  a  federal  of- 
fense. Whenever  it  is  a  local  offense,  to  be  tried  in 
the  local  courts,  it  is  considered  lightly.  The  use  of 
fear  in  treating  the  Negroes  does  not  eliminate 
causes,  but  increases  the  sense  of  injustice  and 
leads  to  counter  moves.  Intimidation  represses 
but  does  not  solve  social  problems. 

The  most  promising  method  of  dealing  with  both 
the  Negro  problem  and  the  Negro's  problem  is 
through  local  joint  committees  in  every  community 
where  the  white  and  colored  people  reside.  Broad- 
minded  representatives  of  both  races  can  approach 
all  the  problems  in  fairness  and  consider  them  in 
the  light  of  all  the  peculiar  local  factors.  Upon 
the  basis  of  these  local  conferences  and  findings,  it 
will  be  possible  to  work  out  the  methods  for  solving 
the  problems  in  the  large,  that  is,  for  the  nation. 

Race  prejudice  can  be  undermined  only  by  slow 
educational  processes.  A  great  deal  of  race  preju- 
dice arises  from  misunderstanding,  and  even  from 
ignorance  of  the  worth  and  potentialities  of  the 
other  fellow.  When  the  Negro  in  rising  permits  his 


318  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

increasing  worth  to  speak  for  itself  and  when  white 
people  treat  the  Negro  without  unfair  prejudice, 
the  race  problems  that  are  now  so  perplexing  may 
be  solved. 

Another  illustration  of  racial  conflict  may  be 
drawn  from  the  United  States,  especially  from  Cali- 
fornia where  friction  between  the  Japanese  and  the 
white  people  began  to  create  trouble  about  1907. 
By  their  industry,  frugality,  and  low  standards  of 
living  the  Japanese  were  competing  successfully 
with  white  farmers.  As  a  result  of  the  different 
color  of  their  skin  and  their  different  type  of  culture, 
they  attracted  undue  attention  to  themselves.  With 
the  importation  of  wives  and  the  growth  in  the  Jap- 
anese birth  rate,  the  situation  attracted  the  atten- 
tion of  the  newspapers,  which  were  induced  to  con- 
duct a  thorough  propaganda  against  Japanese  im- 
migrants. And  then  in  1913,  California  passed  an 
anti-alien  land  law  that  debarred  the  Japanese 
from  buying  land,  and  from  leasing  land  for  longer 
than  three  years  at  a  time.  This  latter  privilege 
was  denied  the  Japanese  in  1920. 

The  problem  is  racial  and  economic.  California 
cannot  afford  to  be  flooded  with  immigrants  possess- 
ing low  economic  standards  and  physical  and  men- 
tal traits  markedly  different  from  Caucasians,  but 
her  method  of  treating  the  situation  has  been  nar- 
row visioned.  She  has  hardly  been  willing  to  pro- 
ceed except  on  a  provincial  basis;  she  has  ignored 


RACIAL  GROUPS  319 

the  larger  international  aspects  of  the  situation  and 
offended  the  proud  spirit  and  the  good  will  of  the 
Japanese. 

In  the  United  States  the  naturalization  law 
excludes  the  Japanese  (and  Chinese)  from  citizen- 
ship, although  admitting  African  and  Caucasian 
immigrants  to  this  privilege.  It  is  a  mistake  to 
admit  the  representatives  of  any  race  and  then  to 
hold  them  aloof  by  giving  them  no  opportunity  to 
become  naturalized  and  to  function  as  citizens.  It 
would  be  desirable  through  educational  tests  to 
make  rather  strict  qualifications  for  voting  on  the 
basis  of  personal  worth  and  mental  ability,  and 
then  to  repeal  all  racial  naturalization  restrictions. 
With  high  worth  and  potentiality  being  required 
for  admission  to  the  country ;  and  actual  worth  and 
ability,  for  voting,  all  racially  discriminatory  im- 
migration and  naturalization  legislation  could  be 
rescinded.  The  nation  would  be  protected  and  at 
the  same  time  cause  its  profession  of  justice,  fair 
play,  and  democracy  to  ring  true  in  those  parts  of 
the  world  where  now  it  is  counted  insincere. 

3.  Assimilation  and  Amalgamation.  The  pres- 
ence together  of  persons  racially  or  mentally  differ- 
ent creates  the  problems  of  assimilation  and  amal- 
gamation. Assimilation  means  the  adoption  of  the 
spiritual  inheritance  of  a  people,  that  is,  of  its 
standards,  customs,  institutions,  and  ideals.  In  a 


320  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

broader  sense  it  means  giving  as  well  as  becoming ; 
it  also  involves  a  union  of  attitudes,  which  enables 
people  to  think  and  act  together. 

An  old  theory  is  that  the  immigrant  should  give 
up  his  traditions  and  adopt  those  of  the  country  to 
which  he  has  migrated.  Such  a  method  means  that 
the  immigrant  merely  shifts  from  one  intolerant 
group  to  another  intolerant  group.  This  procedure 
is  based  on  an  exaggerated  race  pride,  which  approx- 
imates group  selfishness. 

Another  theory  is  that  the  immigrant  should  be 
"melted"  into  the  body  politic.  He  should  con- 
tribute his  cultural  gifts,  and  lose  his  racial  identity 
in  his  adopted  national  group.  This  theory  has 
much  of  merit  in  its  fundamental  principles.  It 
however  does  not  allow  enough  for  racial  distinc- 
tions, because  an  immigrant  cannot  easily  give  up 
all  connections  with  his  homeland,  the  land  of  his 
birth,  his  childhood  days,  and  the  land  perhaps  in 
which  his  parents  still  live. 

The  belief  that  an  immigrant  should  give  up  and 
forget  as  soon  as  possible  his  native  language  is 
begotten  of  false  local  pride.  The  immigrant  brings  a 
precious  gift  in  his  foreign  language.  A  truly  cul- 
tured group  is  one  in  which  many  of  whose  mem- 
bers are  bi-linguists.  Through  the  language  that 
they  bring,  immigrants  constitute  for  the  group  to 
which  they  migrate  open  gates  to  the  cultures  of 
the  world.  It  is  needless  to  argue  that  an  immi- 


RACIAL  GROUPS  321 

grant  should  learn  promptly  the  language  of  the 
adopted  group. 

In  the  United  States  the  assimilation  process  has 
been  receiving  attention  under  the  name  of  Ameri- 
canization. For  many  years  this  country  gave  no 
attention  to  the  problem  of  assimilation,  leaving  the 
whole  matter  to  a  formal  type  of  naturalization 
work.  Then  the  melting  pot  figure  of  speech  was 
given  the  country  in  1909  and  the  American  rested 
content  in  the  belief  that  immigrants  were  being 
assimilated  but  was  not  disturbed  by  the  open  fact 
that  in  all  the  congested  districts  of  all  large  cities 
the  immigrants  were  living  in  ever  enlarging  colo- 
nies, having  few  contacts  with  Americanism  except 
in  its  lowest  forms. 

The  World  War  made  evident  to  the  American 
people  that  by  virtue  of  their  neglect,  millions  of 
persons  had  been  allowed  to  live  in  the  country 
without  having  any  reasonable  opportunity  to 
become  Americans  in  spirit.  Americanization  of 
a  narrow  type  was  undertaken  with  a  vengeance ;  it 
attempted  to  use  Prussian  methods  of  compulsion. 
Several  years  after  the  war  closed  an  educational 
type  of  Americanization  came  to  prevail. 

The  public  schools  are  the  leading  agent  of  assim- 
ilation in  the  United  States.  Children  from  different 
racial  groups  are  thrown  into  mutual  relationship 
with  one  another  and  with  American  children.  The 
gradual  adoption  of  American  ways  of  thinking 


322  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

takes  place.  The  teaching  of  the  English  language 
and  of  American  traditions  and  customs  also  plays 
an  important  part  in  the  assimilating  process. 

The  immigrant  children  become  assimilated  first, 
the  fathers  next,  and  the  mothers,  last  of  all.  The 
fathers  find  their  contacts  with  American  life  in  the 
factories,  mills,  and  other  places  of  work.  The) 
first  learn  American  profanity ;  and  then,  often  get 
their  first  lessons  in  Americanism  from  the  curses 
of  the  foremen  and  bosses.  To  meet  an  urgent  need, 
classes  in  English  have  been  established  in  factories. 
This  industrial  work  is  usually  carried  on  through 
public  school  teachers. 

The  immigrant  mothers  have  least  opportunity  to 
learn  Americanism;  they  have  almost  no  con- 
tacts with  American  people  and  little  opportunity 
to  learn  even  the  English  language.  They  live  in 
a  world  of  isolation.  To  that  end  the  visiting  teacher, 
referred  to  in  a  preceding  chapter,  serves  as  a  benef- 
icent friend,  guide,  and  Americanizer. 

The  physical  environment,  American  institutions, 
manners,  and  life  surround  the  immigrant  and 
serve  as  powerful  indirect  factors  in  bringing  about 
changes  in  manners  of  dress  and  living.  Immigrant 
colonies  however  prevent  these  contacts ;  American 
race  prejudice  is  also  a  deadening  factor. 

A  better  distribution  of  immigrants  is  needed. 
To  move  immigrants  from  the  cities  into  rural  dis- 
tricts sounds  practical  in  view  of  the  fact  that  a 


RACIAL  GROUPS  323 

large  percentage  of  immigrants  have  come  from 
rural  provinces  of  Europe,  and  have  settled  in 
American  cities  in  order  to  be  near  relatives  and 
friends.  Why  not  therefore  move  whole  groups  into 
rural  districts?  The  experiment  has  been  tried  but 
has  succeeded  only  in  a  small  degree.  American 
rural  life  is  built  around  the  American  isolated  farm 
dwelling  plan.  The  rural  peoples  of  Europe  do  not 
live  in  this  way,  but  in  villages,  and  therefore  find 
the  isolated  farm  dwelling  method  almost  unbear- 
able. 

A  true  distribution  of  immigrants  is  not  primarily 
geographic  in  nature,  but  social  and  psychological. 
In  other  words  immigrant  distribution  should  be 
conducted  so  that  each  immigrant  will  have  many 
contacts  daily  or  regularly  with  Americans  who 
worthily  represent  American  ideals.  Such  contacts 
will  naturally  and  easily  lead  the  immigrant  into  a 
love  of  the  nation  that  no  evil  force  can  defeat. 

The  trade  union  is  another  assimilating  force.  It 
teaches  the  immigrant  self  government  and  to  obey 
officers  whom  he  himself  elects.  In  participating 
in  union  meetings  he  often  learns  his  first  lesson 
in  political  democracy.  The  union  encourages  the 
foreigner  to  adopt  American  standards  of  living. 
The  conscientious  employer  is  also  an  assimilation 
factor  to  the  extent  that  he  treats  his  employees 
democratically,  and  assists  in  conducting  industrial 
classes  for  his  employees. 


324  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

Wherein  lies  the  responsibility  for  the  non-as- 
similated immigrants  in  the  United  States  ?  Partly, 
in  the  fact  that  immigrants  have  been  coming  in 
large  numbers,  and  partly  in  another  fact,  namely 
that  the  native  born  people  have  given  little  atten- 
tion to  the  welfare  of  the  immigrant.  Americans 
have  been  so  busy  in  striving  for  individual  pecu- 
niary success  that  they  have  not  taken  time  to  show 
that  consideration  to  immigrants  which  leads  natu- 
rally to  Americanization. 

The  responsibility  for  non-assimilation  rests 
upon  both  immigrants  and  the  native  born.  When 
given  a  normal  chance  the  immigrant  usually 
becomes  assimilated  without  special  difficulty. 
Immigrants,  irrespective  of  race,  faith,  or  class, 
should  be  encouraged,  regardless  of  the  faults  of 
their  neighbors  and  the  community.  In  return, 
their  neighbors  whether  native  or  immigrant,  need 
to  treat  them  democratically.  The  community  may 
well  afford  to  encourage  the  immigrant  and  the 
native  in  this  method  of  real  Americanization. 

In  the  past,  the  United  States  has  placed  empha- 
sis upon  the  individual,  and  allowed  the  "masses" 
to  increase,  to  become  disgruntled,  and  in  many  in- 
stances, to  sink  to  a  low  level.  She  has  been  busy 
developing,  even  exploiting,  her  natural  resources 
to  the  advantage  of  the  few  more  than  to  the  gain 
of  the  masses.  In  her  haste  to  develop  the  natural 
resources,  the  best  national  resources,  namely,  the 


RACIAL  GROUPS  325 

good  will  of  her  masses  has  been  strained  at  times  to 
the  disintegrating  point.  There  has  been  a  tendency 
to  discount  spiritual  values,  and  especially  to  neglect 
the  immigrant  forces  in  the  land. 

A  new  attitude  of  personal  helpfulness  toward 
the  immigrant  is  needed  on  the  part  of  all  Ameri- 
cans. When  one  comes  to  know  the  history  of  any 
race,  he  understands  the  weaknesses  of  that  race, 
feels  sorry  for  the  race,  and  his  hatred  shifts  from 
peoples  to  destructive  traits.  If  it  is  true  that  all 
races  are  alike  at  their  best  and  their  worst,  thus 
proving  their  essential  unity,  the  exponents  of 
democracy  may  take  hope. 

Of  primary  importance  is  the  necessity  of  work- 
ing out  an  adequate  and  permanent  assimilation 
policy  based  on  the  development  of  American  ideals. 
In  this  connection  the  United  States  may  learn 
much  from  Canada,  where  a  real  Canadianization 
procedure  has  been  followed  for  years.  Canadian- 
ization has  meant  a  governmental  interest  by  Can- 
ada in  the  welfare  of  her  people  and  especially  of 
her  immigrants  far  superior  to  the  attitude  of  the 
United  States  toward  her  immigrant  peoples. 
Canada  has  analyzed  her  own  needs,  determined 
upon  the  kind  of  immigrants  that  she  has  needed, 
and  then  sent  for  them  to  come — from  the  United 
States,  England,  Scotland,  Ireland,  and  the  conti- 
nent of  Europe.  She  has  officially  encouraged  per- 
sons to  immigrate  who  would  settle  upon  her  farms, 


326  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

and  discouraged  many  types  of  city  people  from 
coming.  When  they  have  arrived  she  has  met  them 
at  the  gates,  helped  them  to  get  adjusted  to  the  new 
conditions,  and  tried  to  protect  them  from  exploi- 
tation. Her  immigration  halls  and  labor  exchanges 
have  rendered  free  service.  By  softening  the  harsh 
conditions  of  adjustment,  the  immigrant's  good  will 
has  been  won.  Any  country  may  do  likewise,  and 
in  so  doing  will  find  her  immigration  problems 
diminishing  in  severity. 

Closely  related  to  assimilation  is  the  process 
known  as  amalgamation.  This  refers  to  the  bio- 
logical union  of  peoples  and  the  creation  of  new 
racial  stocks.  Intermarriage  between  races  produces 
amalgamation.  It  is  a  process  that  cannot  be^forced 
to  a  great  degree  and  yet  one  that  occurs  naturally 
when  assimilation  has  taken  place.  It  is  a  process 
of  the  centuries,  whereas  assimilation  is  one  of  the 
decades. 

The  amalgamation  of  races  somewhat  different 
from  each  other  is  to  be  favored.  The  result  has 
usually  been  a  race  stronger  than  any  of  the  parent 
races.  The  English,  Germans,  and  Scotch-Irish 
are  outstanding  illustrations  of  amalgamated  races. 
The  amalgamation  of  races  widely  different  in  type, 
such  as  the  white  and  yellow,  or  white  and  black, 
has  never  taken  place  under  normal  conditions,  but 
ordinarily  in  illegal  ways  and  under  conditions  of 
vice.  Nature  apparently  does  not  object  to  such 


RACIAL  GROUPS  327 

intermixture  of  races  but  social  standards  forbid. 
As  indicated  in  the  analysis  in  a  preceding  chapter 
on  community  groups,  it  probably  is  well  to  work 
toward  world  unity  of  thought  and  culture  but  not 
necessarily  race  unity. 

In  summary  of  the  several  chapters  on  the  subject^ 
of  human  groups,  it  may  be  said  that  every  individ- 
ual is  born  a  member  of  a  parental  family,  of  a 
racial  group,  of  a  nation  group,  and  of  either  a  rural 
or  an  urban  group.  He  may  elect  to  establish  a 
family  group  of  his  own,  to  change  his  nation,  or 
to  move  from  the  rural  to  an  urban  group,  or  vice 
versa,  but  he  cannot  change  his  parental  or  racial 
group  lineage.  He  early  finds  himself  a  member  of 
play  groups,  school  groups,  community  groups,  and 
usually  of  a  church  group.  Any  of  these  group  con- 
nections may  be  temporary ;  circumstances  or  per- 
sonal choices  may  lead  to  changes.  Moreover  the 
individual's  group  vision  may  change.  For  example, 
his  vision  at  first  is  limited  to  the  family  group, 
then  it  expands  through  play  and  community  group 
activities;  it  reaches  a  nation  group  loyalty;  and 
then  through  various  educational  and  perhaps 
religious  or  other  group  processes,  the  individual 
may  acquire  a  world  social  attitude. 

In  all  these  situations  the  individual  begins 
sooner  or  later  to  examine  the  conditions  by  which 
groups  control  him,  and  the  ways  in  which  he  may 


328  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

influence  group  life.    Group  Control  thus  becomes 
the  remaining  major  theme  to  be  considered. 


PROBLEMS 

1.  Why  do  people  migrate? 

2.  Have  you  or  your  parents  moved  from  one  home  to 

another  ?    Why  ? 

3.  Distinguish  between  colonization  and  immigration. 

4.  Illustrate  the  way  in  which  migration  causes  progressive- 

ness. 

5.  "What  is  the  underlying  reason  for  permitting  immi- 

gration to  the  United  States?" 

6.  Why  do  immigrants  tend  to  go  to  the  already  over- 

crowded districts  in  large  cities? 

7.  Distinguish  between  inter-migration  and  intra-migration. 

8.  What  is  race  prejudice? 

9.  What  is  the  Negro's  problem  in  the  United  States? 

10.  Why  do  Americans  object  to  the  industry  and  frugality 

of  Japanese  immigrants? 

11.  In  what  way  is  the  naturalization  law  in  the  United 

States  defective? 

12.  Distinguish  between  assimilation  and  Americanization. 

13.  What  are  the  leading  traits  of  an  ideal  American  citizen? 

14.  What  is  Americanization? 

15.  Why  is  distribution  of  immigrants  significant? 

16.  Why  is  the  group  life  of  the  individual  of  vital  impor- 

tance? 


CHAPTER  XVII 
GROUP  CONTROL 


THE  INDIRECT  and  direct  ways  in  which  the  atti- 
tudes of  a  person  and  his  sense  of  social  values  are 
influenced  by  the  groups  of  which  he  is  a  member 
are  illustrations  of  group  control,  a  process  to  which 
the  attention  of  the  student  has  already  been 
called.  Sometimes  this  process  is  repressive,  and 
sometimes  stimulative.  Again,  it  may  operate 
through  the  use  of  physical  force,  or  in  subtle  and 
subjective  fashion.  The  group  control  process  is 
intricately  complex,  and  its  analysis  exceedingly 
difficult. 

1.  The  Nature  of  Group  Control.  In  one  of  its 
simplest  forms  group  control  may  be  illustrated  by 
reference  to  the  small  child  who  is  influenced  by 
the  attitudes  of  his  parents,  who  in  turn  have  had 
their  interests  largely  determined  by  countless  so- 
cial forces.  As  the  infant  grows  he  sometimes  comes 
into  conflict  with  a  parent;  his  acquired  habit  of 
desiring  to  be  taken  up  and  rocked  may  be  denied. 
For  several  years  the  child  thus  is  subject  to  paren- 
tal control.  The  parents  alternate  between  loving 


330  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

attitudes  and  the  use  of  physical  force  in  the  proc- 
ess of  exercising  control.  If  they  allow  anger  to 
express  itself  against  the  child,  he  is  likely  to  feel 
angry  in  return  and  to  harbor  a  sense  of  gross  in- 
justice. If  this  process  is  repeated  time  and  again, 
the  child  who  has  a  strong  ego,  will  likely  develop 
an  attitude  of  hatred  toward  his  parents,  and 
when  he  grows  older,  will  run  away  and  openly  defy 
parental  control. 

The  importance  of  maintaining  parental  control 
with  love  and  firmness  cannot  be  overestimated,  for 
thereby  in  later  years  social  and  national  control 
do  not  become  serious  problems.  As  shown  in 
Chapter  VI  the  family  group  is  better  fitted  than 
any  other  for  teaching  the  concepts  of  obedience, 
the  meaning  of  discipline,  and  for  developing  a  con- 
structive group  attitude. 

In  the  play  group,  children  divide  themselves  into 
leaders  and  followers.  Children  in  a  play  group 
often  will  obey  a  leader  more  naturally  than  a 
parent,  for  there  is  not  the  disparity  of  viewpoint 
between  the  leader  and  the  other  children  that 
there  is  between  parent  and  child.  In  the  play  group 
the  individual  will  sometimes  take  severe  punish- 
ment from  other  children  without  whimpering, 
whereas  slight  punishment  from  a  parent  may  pro- 
duce an  outburst  of  uncontrolled  anger. 

In  the  school  group  social  control  is  reduced  to 
special  forms  of  routine.  Regular  hours,  seating 


GROUP  CONTROL  331 

arrangements,  and  lesson  assignments  must  be  ob- 
served. This  rigidity  is  necessary  and  yet  a  too 
sharp  contact  with  it  turns  many  young  adoles- 
cents, especially  boys,  away  from  school  life.  The 
play  group  life  that  the  school  affords  is  a  saving 
factor  for  countless  children. 

The  religious  group  processes  illustrate  another 
type  of  control,  a  control  which  finds  its  sanction  in 
a  belief  in  the  unseen  God.  The  eye  of  God  sees  in 
secret;  it  penetrates  everywhere,  even  to  the  most 
secret  place  of  the  heart  and  mind.  Individuals 
thus  find  themselves  regulating  their  conduct  ac- 
cording to  their  interpretation  of  the  wishes  of  God. 
This  extra-group  control  is  essentially  social  in 
character. 

The  national  group  in  particular  and  all  groups 
in  general  rely  heavily  on  group  opinion  and  law  as 
the  two  chief  means  of  control.  These  factors,  while 
crystallized  as  positive  elements  in  national  life, 
possess  such  wide  ramifications  that  they  will  be 
considered  together  in  the  next  section.  Suffice  it  to 
say  here  that  group  control  and  individual  initia- 
tive represent  the  two  poles  of  group  life.  Both  are 
essential;  yet  either  in  an  extreme  form  can  de- 
stroy the  force  of  the  other,  and  in  so  doing  destroy 
the  group  itself.  Both  must  be  viewed  rationally, 
used  altruistically,  that  is,  group  control  must  have 
as  its  standard  of  value,  personal  growth ;  and  indi- 
vidual initiative  may  express  itself  best  only  in  line 


332  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

with  group  welfare. 

2.  Control  Through  Public  Opinion  and  Law.  The 
more  important  direct  means  by  which  individuals 
are  ruled  or  influenced  by  the  groups  of  which  they 
are  members  include  factors  such  as  customs,  ta- 
boo, ritual,  law,  and  public  opinion. 

(1)  A  large  part  of  individual  and  social 
conduct,  both  in  primitive  and  civilized  life,  is  based 
on  group  approved  ways  of  acting,  common  to  the 
specific  group  and  well  established  through  being 
passed  on  from  generation  to  generation.  These 
customs,  or  mores,  represent  or  have  represented 
successful  methods  of  doing  or  thinking.  Hence  they 
have  acquired  prestige  and  are  group  sanctioned. 
The  individual  is  constrained  to  conduct  himself 
according  to  the  dictates  of  these  customs. 

The  older  men,  especially  the  priests  and  the 
medicine  men,  among  primitive  peoples  are  the 
guardians  of  the  mores.  In  civilized  groups,  the 
older  men,  including  those  in  the  professions,  law, 
teaching,  the  ministry,  and  the  like,  are  also  guard- 
ians of  the  customary  ways  of  acting. 

The  real  authority  behind  the  mores  of  course  is 
the  group  itself.  The  group  includes  not  simply  the 
living  visible  members.  The  memories  of  those  who 
have  departed  from  this  life  exert  forceful  influence. 
The  group  voices  itself  in  forms  of  approval  or  dis- 
approval. Group  approval  is  expressed  frequently 


GROUP  CONTROL  333 

in  songs,  medals,  honorable  mention,  and  parades. 
Group  ridicule  is  such  a  severe  form  of  punishment 
that  most  individuals  cannot  long  withstand  it.  In 
their  outward  behavior  many  persons  live  on  higher 
levels  of  activity  than  they  would  if  they  were  not 
continually  in  danger  of  inviting  group  contempt. 

(2)  Taboo  is  a  unique  method  of  enforcing  a 
custom;  it  possesses  peculiar  and  terrible  strength. 
Among  primitives,  taboo  prohibits  any  contact  with 
certain  objects  or  persons  under  penalty  of  harm 
being  done  by  unseen  beings.    In  order  to  be  certain 
of  protecting  a  shrine,  the  chieftain  may  place  a 
taboo  upon  a  given  spot  of  ground.    Whoever  vio- 
lates the  taboo  will  be  stricken  to  death — such  is  the 
taboo's  powerful  threat. 

Among  civilized  peoples,  taboo  exists.  It  oper- 
ates by  restraining  the  impulses  of  individuals.  Its 
psychological  quality  is  found  in  the  fear  of  con- 
sequences which  is  engendered  in  the  mind  of  the 
person  who  is  thinking  of  pursuing  a  doubtful 
course  of  behavior.  It  acts  as  a  "Thou  shalt  not." 
It  is  ordinarily  the  negative  guardian  of  behavior. 

(3)  Ritual  is  the  positive  agent  in  increasing  the 
strength  of  custom.    It  operates  by  the  formation 
of  habits.    The  charm  of  orderly  movements,  ac- 
cording to  Dewey  and  Tufts,  together  with  the  im- 
pressiveness  of  ordered  masses  in  processions,  and 
the  awe  of  mystery  all  assist  in  stamping  in  the 
meaning  and  value  of  the  specific  set  of  symbols  or 


334  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

ways  of  acting.  Ritual  secures  the  actual  doing, 
and  also  at  the  same  time  the  formation  of  habits 
in  the  lives  of  individuals. 

The  college  freshman  or  sophomore  who  joins  a 
fraternity  must  submit  to  a  set  of  initiation  cere- 
monies, that  is,  ritual.  The  ritualistic  ceremonies, 
partly  formal  and  partly  informal,  are  generally 
arranged  so  as  to  humilate  the  individual  and  to 
magnify  the  ideals  and  standards  of  the  group.  In 
the  name  of  group  ritual,  many  irrational  "jokes" 
are  perpetrated  upon  innocent  blindfolded  initiates ; 
thus  a  worthy  social  institution  is  sometimes  de- 
based by  its  well-meaning  but  unthinking  friends. 

(4)  The  ideas  of  justice  in  primitive  groups  are 
found  in  a  body  of  customs,  known  as  laws  or  rules 
to  which  absolute  validity  is  given.  Justice  is  the 
aim.  The  chief  source  of  the  growth  of  ideas  of 
justice  and  of  changes  in  legal  rules  lies  in  the 
power  of  the  chieftain  or  king  to  decide  new  cases. 
In  higher  stages  of  civilization,  the  need  for  a  more 
adequate  method  of  legal  procedure  has  been  met 
through  the  establishment  of  courts.  Until  recent 
decades  the  adjudication  of  new  and  particular 
cases  continued  to  be  the  source  of  almost  all  the 
additions  to  "law" ;  today,  however,  nearly  all  new 
expressions  of  law  have  their  source  in  legislative 
bodies,  which  have  been  founded  for  the  purpose 
of  making  new  laws.  The  main  force  which  gives 
law  its  validity  is  found  in  group  opinion. 


GROUP  CONTROL  335 

To  understand  the  significance  of  law,  one  should 
have  a  knowledge  of  the  organization,  development, 
and  functioning  of  group  life  and  processes.  Legal 
texts  and  codes  always  presuppose  some  theory  of 
the  nature  of  human  society.  Earliest  Roman  law 
assumed  that  the  religious  view  of  social  organiza- 
tion was  inherent  in  ancestor  worship.  Later  Roman 
law  rested  on  the  assumption  that  the  social  order 
was  a  matter  of  "contract"  between  independent 
individuals.  Through  the  influence  of  the  church 
during  the  Middle  Ages,  the  conception  of  law  as 
a  divine  command  dominated.  Today  the  real 
foundation  of  law  has  been  discovered  in  the  welfare 
of  the  people.  The  courts  in  their  interpretations 
of  law  are  manifesting  a  changing  attitude;  there 
is  less  blind  adherence  to  precedents,  often  anti- 
quated, and  more  consideration  of  public  welfare 
in  interpreting  law. 

The  exercise  by  the  state  of  restraint  of  the  indi- 
vidual becomes  increasingly  necessary  in  an  increas- 
ingly complex  collective  life.  When  people  traveled 
in  ox  carts,  traffic  ordinances  were  not  needed ;  but 
in  an  age  of  automobiles  definite  laws  restricting 
individuals  must  be  made  and  enforced  in  behalf 
of  the  common  welfare.  The  coercive  character  of 
law  is  justified  by  the  needs  of  controlling  individ- 
ual behavior  in  the  direction  of  group  safety  and 
advantage.  The  law  hence  aims  to  maintain  cer- 
tain minimum  standards  of  social  conduct  which 


336  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

are  necessary  for  the  safety  of  society.  The  civil 
and  criminal  law  become  two  main  pillars  which 
sustain  the  social  structure  in  any  nation. 

Law  has  been  called  the  most  specialized  and 
highly  finished  engine  of  control  employed  by  so- 
ciety.  Its  double  function  has  been  analyzed  by 
Edward  A.  Ross:  it  deals  repressively  with  indi- 
viduals with  respect  to  certain  of  their  aggressive 
acts ;  and  also  with  them  respecting  their  neglects, 
especially  with  reference  to  contracts.  In  general 
it  is  easier  to  prevent  men  from  unduly  interfering 
with  one  another's  activities,  than  it  is  to  compel 
co-operation.  The  law  secures  respect  for  itself 
through  a  system  of  punishments.  Law  commonly 
uses  physical  punishment  indirectly,  in  that  the  con- 
victed person  is  incarcerated  in  a  cell  away  from  his 
home  friends  and  given  a  very  limited  bodily  free- 
dom. 

Since  civil  and  criminal  law  are  the  main  pillars 
of  group  stability,  it  is  the  lawyer's  function  to  help 
preserve  the  social  order.  The  legal  profession  has 
been  pronounced  a  social  service  profession,  as 
much  so  as  teaching  or  the  ministry.  If  this  soci- 
ological view  of  law  is  correct,  then  the  commercial- 
ized conception  of  the  profession,  namely,  of  having 
personal  service  to  sell  to  individuals  and  corpo- 
rations who  can  pay  for  them  and  who  use  them 
for  individual  and  corporate  gain  irrespective  of 
social  welfare  is  false.  The  members  of  the  legal 


GROUP  CONTROL  337 

profession  should  consider  themselves  social  serv- 
ants, rather  than  the  salaried  spokesmen  of  persons 
or  corporations  who  can  pay. 

(5)  Public  opinion  is  the  force  upon  which  law 
depends  for  its  support.  It  is  in  public  opinion,  in 
a  democracy,  that  law  finds  its  sanction.  Public 
opinion  when  crystallized  becomes  law,  either 
written  or  unwritten. 

Public  opinion  acts  more  quickly  than  does  law. 
It  is  a  less  expensive  means  of  group  control.  As 
Edward  A.  Ross  has  pointed  out,  public  opinion 
is  less  mechanical  than  law,  and  penetrates  the  hid- 
den regions  of  life ;  it  passes  judgment  upon  purely 
private  acts.  It  is  an  inexpensive  means  of  control. 
"The  inexpensiveness  of  praise  or  blame  is  mar- 
velous." Human  conduct  is  continually  condi- 
tioned by  the  fact  that  public  opinion  will  be  ruth- 
lessly expressed. 

Public  opinion,  however,  has  defects.  It  is  not 
clear,  nor  precise  nor  codified ;  it  has  "a  short  wrath 
and  a  poor  memory."  It  is  rarely  unanimous ;  an 
offender  against  society  can  escape  the  condem- 
nation of  public  opinion  by  taking  refuge  among  a 
group  of  friends  where  his  fault  is  condoned  or 
'even  praised.  If  responsibility  can  be  shifted,  for 
,  example,  when  a  corporation  has  committed  an  of- 
fense, public  opinion  is  confused.  Public  opinion 
is  primitive  in  its  methods,  instinctive  and  passion- 
ate. "Its  frown  is  capricious  and  its  favor  is  fitful/' 


338  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

There  are  other  agencies  of  social  control,  such 
as  religious  beliefs,  direct  and  indirect  suggestions, 
slogans,  and  shibboleths.  Art  is  a  highly  significant 
form  of  social  control ;  hence  the  next  section  of  this 
chapter  will  be  devoted  to  an  interpretation  of  this 
theme. 

3.  Control  Through  Art.  Art  finds  its  expres- 
sion in  the  order,  rhythm,  and  symmetry  which  in 
one  form  or  another  may  be  observed  everywhere  in 
the  universe.  It  is  natural  that  human  beings 
should  be  peculiarly  susceptible  to  "the  influence 
of  that  which  pervades  and  rules  in  the  heavens 
and  the  earth,  and  in  the  mind  and  body."  Celes- 
tial bodies  move  orderly  and  rhythmically.  Sight 
would  not  be  possible  if  it  were  not  for  the  rhyth- 
mical vibrations  of  "ether,"  and  sound  would  be 
unknown  were  it  not  for  the  rhythmical  vibrations 
of  air.  The  heart  beats  orderly  and  rhythmically. 
It  is  not  surprising,  therefore,  that  human  beings 
respond  to  that  which  is  orderly,  symmetrical,  and 
hence  which  in  general  is  esthetic. 

Art  influences  people  through  the  pattern  forms 
which  it  produces.  These  patterns  give  a  setting  to 
all  human  life;  they  are  fundamental  to  humai 
attitudes.  They  express  themselves  through  per- 
sonal decoration,  ornamentation,  architecture, 
painting,  and  sculpture.  These  arts  set  static  pat- 
terns. In  the  dance,  song,  poetry,  music,  and  pub- 


GROUP  CONTROL  339 

lie  speech  the  pattern  forms  possess  a  moving  dy- 
namic element.  In  all  these  fields  art  creates  an 
ideal  world  with  a  peculiar  drawing  power  for  hu- 
man beings.  The  appeal  is  usually  made  through 
the  feelings,  and  hence  human  beings  in  interpret- 
ing art  forms  are  subject  to  error.  Art  therefore 
needs  censorship,  in  order  to  safeguard  the  ordinary 
individual  from  being  controlled  by  false  interpre- 
tations of  erratic  devotees. 

Art  is  a  strong  factor  in  control  because  of  its  in- 
direct suggestion.  Its  appeal  is  not  made  on  the 
reasoning  or  rational  plane  and  therefore  does  not 
directly  arouse  argument.  Art  does  not  moralize ; 
it  sets  examples  which  because  of  their  feeling  ele- 
ments easily  secure  adoption. 

The  decorating  of  the  human  body  represents  an 
original  form  of  art  control.  In  his  everyday  life, 
the  primitive  Australian  is  satisfied  with  a  few  spots 
on  his  cheeks  and  shoulders,  but  on  festive  occa- 
sions, he  extends  the  painting  over  his  whole  body. 
Bodily  decoration  by  painting  is  transitory,  hence 
two  means  of  impressing  designs  on  the  body  per- 
...nianently  have  been  devised:  scarification  for  dark- 
skinned  peoples,  and  tattooing  for  fair-skinned 
races. 

Hair  dressing  has  been  set  in  artistic  forms. 
Among  primitives  the  hair  is  sometimes  thickly 
kneaded  with  red  ochre  and  fat,  while  feathers, 
crabs,  clams,  and  so  forth  are  placed  in  the  viscous 


340  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

locks.  The  feather  has  maintained  its  original  place 
in  decoration  throughout  the  ages  and  during  all 
the  stages  of  culture.  It  waves  on  the  helmet  of 
the  civilized  as  well  as  on  the  headband  of  the  prim- 
itive warrior.  Among  both  primitive  and  civilized 
peoples  birds  have  borne  the  chief  expense  of  head- 
dress ;  even  the  Bushman's  fashion  of  wearing  birds' 
heads,  or  even  whole  birds  is  perennially  raised  into 
group  honor. 

Civilization  has  not  succeeeded  in  freeing  itself 
from  control  by  the  decorative  forms  which  ap- 
pealed to  primitive  groups.  The  development  of 
decoration  has  increased  the  range  of  materials  used 
and  refined  the  technique,  according  to  Ernst 
Grosse,  but  it  has  not  contributed  an  important  new 
form  of  personal  decoration. 

Architecture  exercises  a  peculiar  force  on  man- 
kind through  its  pattern  forms.     These    are    (1) 
buildings  for  protection;    (2)   structures  for  pur- 
poses of  transit,  notably,  bridges,   aqueducts,    and 
tunnels;  and  (3)  structures  for  memorial  purposes  % 
— in  memorial  forms  for  the  dead  and  to  commem- , 
orate  historic  events. 

The  chief  architectural  form  is  the  dwelling  iiil 
its  various  expressions.     For  commercial  purposes 
there  is  the  store,  the  factory,  the  warehouse,  the 
bank;  for  educational  needs  there  is  the  school-** 
house,  college  hall,  library,  and  public  hall ;  for  gov- 
ernmental purposes  there  is  the  courthouse,  prison, 


GROUP  CONTROL  341 

fort,  legislative  hall,  and  for  religious  worship,  the 
church,  the  cathedral,  the  temple  have  been  de- 
signed. Chief  of  all  is  the  dwelling  for  the  family, 
described  by  John  Bascom,  as  "the  orb  of  childhood, 
the  nest,  the  nursery,  and  the  school  of  the  human 
callow:  it  is  the  home  of  manhood,  its  center  of 
exertion  and  enjoyment,  its  points  of  departure  and 
return:  it  is  the  repose  of  age;  thither  weary  and 
spent,  man  turns  to  lay  down  his  burden." 

Painting,  supplementing  the  art  of  drawing  which 
was  an  influential  factor  among  primitive  people, 
has  included  many  phases  of  human  life.  It  may 
deliver  the  whole  force  of  a  historic  event  or  of  a 
life-long  biography  in  a  moment  of  time;  it  may 
give  the  observer  at  a  glance  an  interpretation  of 
vast  currents  of  affection  and  emotion  "as  they 
surge  on  in  full  volume." 

The  power  and  force  of  painting  lie  in  the  method 
of  presenting  fundamental  truth,  current  and  his- 
torical, so  as  to  influence  countless  human  beings 
deeply.  In  recent  years  some  painters,  such  as 
Herman  Heyenbrock,  have  been  presenting  social 
and  industrial  conditions  in  a  way  that  brings  im- 
portant principles  home  to  people  otherwise  de- 
cidedly unaware  of  many  real  human  needs. 

Sculpture  is  at  one  and  the  same  time  the  most 
laborious  and  imperishable  of  art  forms.  Man  is 
the  chief  subject  of  sculpture;  the  human  face  has 
been  called  the  citadel  of  sculpture.  Sculpture  gives 


342  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

expression  to  the  highest  characteristics  of  man- 
kind, and  puts  them  into  forms  more  permanent 
than  paintings,  prose,  poetry,  or  music.  When  the 
solemn,  vital  elements  of  human  life  are  presented 
in  silent,  sculptural  patterns,  they  influence  people 
of  all  times,  irrespective  of  race  or  language. 

The  bronze  group  entitled  "The  Mother  of  the 
Dead"  by  G.  S.  Pietro  illustrates  well  the  social 
force  of  sculpture.  The  sculptor  has  caught  the 
lonely  vacant  stare  of  the  mother  of  the  dead  soldier 
and  the  groping  pathos  of  the  little  grandchild  in 
her  arms,  immortalized  them  in  marble,  and  set 
them  above  the  world  in  imperishable  form. 

The  dance  has  always  had  wide  social  signifi- 
cance. The  dances  of  primitive  peoples  were  usu- 
ually  mass  dances,  executed  ordinarily  by  the  men 
alone,  with  the  women  furnishing  the  musical  ac- 
companiment. They  were  used  to  celebrate  group 
victories  or  to  arouse  the  courage  of  the  group  pre- 
ceding any  serious  undertaking,  especially  a  battle. 
The  dancing  group  felt  and  acted  as  a  single  or- 
ganism. The  event  accustomed  men  who  in  their 
precarious  conditions  of  life  were  driven  hither  and 
thither  by  different  individual  needs  to  act  together 
with  united  feelings  for  a  single  object;  it  was  a 
powerful  element  of  control. 

As  the  size  of  primitive  tribes  grew,  the  members 
became  too  numerous  to  join  in  the  mass  dance. 
Hence  the  dance  began  to  lose  its  socializing  power, 


GROUP  CONTROL  343 

although  it  changed  its  form,  especially  that  which 
had  a  strong  sex  appeal.  The  "square"  dances  are 
socially  wholesome,  but  unfortunately  have  lost 
their  popularity  of  a  century  ago.  The  folk  dances 
while  subject  to  abuses,  are  historically  and  esthet- 
ically  effective.  The  ballet  dance  has  excellent  pos- 
sibilities but  often  degenerates  into  "distorted  per- 
versions of  nature,"  arousing  vulgar  curiosity.  The 
"round''  dance  has  one  leading  function  left  to  it, 
that  of  facilitating  the  mutual  approach  of  the 
sexes ;  it  perennially  stresses  immoral  patterns,  as 
in  the  case  of  the  "shimmy." 

Music  through  its  influence  over  the  feelings  is 
a  gigantic  element  of  control.  It  is  a  language 
which  speaks  to  all  mankind ;  it  breaks  through  all 
racial  groups.  The  singing  together  of  the  members 
of  a  group  of  people  unites  them.  Choral  singing 
of  the  non-professional  type  is  one  of  the  highest 
means  of  promoting  a  sense  of  brotherhood;  it  is 
one  of  the  most  effective  forms  of  group  communion. 
In  a  religious  group  music  is  a  strong  force  in  de- 
veloping a  common  spirit  of  worship,  while  in  mil- 
itary life  nothing  is  more  stirring  or  provocative  of 
action  than  the  martial  music  of  a  hundred-piece 
band.  National  songs  bring  millions  to  their  feet 
with  shouts  of  enthusiastic  loyalty. 

Poetry  comes  from  the  feelings  and  goes  to  the 
feelings,  hence  its  significance  as  a  control  instru- 
ment. A  single  great  poet  or  poem  has  helped 


344  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

to  shape  the  lives  of  whole  generations.  Through 
a  single  work,  poetry  has  more  than  once  given  a 
specific  stamp  to  an  entire  national  group.  Poetry 
unites  people,  whom  the  interests  of  life  separate, 
by  invoking  the  same  feelings  in  all.  By  constantly 
repeating  its  patterns,  it  finally  produces  a  lasting 
mood.  Poetry  not  only  unites  people,  it  may  also 
elevate  them,  by  awakening  in  them  a  more  refined 
and  richer  emotional  life  than  that  which  practical 
experiences  have  matured  in  them. 

Poetry  connects  succeeding  generations.  Through 
poetry,  posterity  recognizes  the  voices  of  its  ances- 
tors, and  the  joys  and  sorrows  of  those  who  have 
gone  before.  Thus,  people  are  made  to  feel  that 
they  are  members  of  one  vast  aggregate  past  and 
present  united  and  the  process  of  socialization  is 
realized.  Social  poetry  furnishes  effective  patterns 
for  socialization.  Organized  labor  and  other  in- 
dustrial forces  are  extensively  using  social  poetry. 
By  setting  an  industrial  aspiration  or  need  to  poetic 
form  and  using  it  in  song,  whole  groups  develop  a 
common  thrill  and  undertake  tremendous  tasks. 

Social  hymns  constitute  an  important  control 
factor.  They  combine  the  force  of  art  and  religion 
in  behalf  of  an  improved  group  life  and  of  socialized 
behavior.  Religion  itself  in  so  far  as  it  expresses 
itself  in  social  ideals  is  a  vital  phase  of  group  con- 
trol. 

Social  drama  and  fiction  carry  significant  con- 


GROUP  CONTROL  345 

ccpts  to  multitudes.  The  field  is  not  yet  developed, 
but  because  of  the  wide  reading  and  hearing  which 
fiction  and  drama  are  accorded  and  because  of  the 
principle  of  indirect  suggestion  upon  which  they  are 
based,  they  may  yet  become  leading  forces  in  so- 
cial control. 

The  newspaper  sets  pattern  opinions  and  espe- 
cially pattern  feelings  for  millions  of  persons  daily. 
The  control  while  often  indirect  and  productive  of 
more  or  less  unconscious  effects  is  increasingly  far- 
reaching.  Since  it  is  often  based  on  opinions  and 
emotional  reactions  rather  than  verified  facts  its 
control  influence  is  often  deleterious.  The  cinema 
likewise  is  setting  pattern  examples  of  feeling  and 
action  before  millions  of  persons  daily.  Even  more 
than  do  the  newspapers  the  cinema  exerts  melo- 
dramatic influence.  In  using  all  the  art  of  indirect 
suggestion  it  is  an  overpowering  engine  of  control. 

The  social  control  of  public  speaking  lies  chiefly 
in  its  persuasiveness.  To  speak  to  an  assembly 
composed  of  people  of  various  callings,  views,  and 
prejudices,  and  unite  them  in  common  action— 
therein  lies  the  social  power  of  public  speaking.  To 
make  truth  and  justice,  wisdom  and  virtue,  patri- 
otism and  religion,  holier  and  more  socially  useful 
than  men  had  even  dreamed  them  to  be — this  is 
the  control  element  at  its  best  in  public  speaking. 

Art  as  an  agent  of  social  control  has  changed 
its  course  during  the  past  ages.  Among  primitive 


346  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

peoples,  ornamentation  pre-eminently  promoted 
technical  skill.  Poetry,  the  dance,  and  music  arose 
partly  because  they  inflamed  and  inspired  the  war- 
riors— who  were  the  bulwark  of  the  group  against 
hostile  attacks.  The  most  powerful  social  influence 
among  primitives  was  vested  in  the  dance. 

It  has  been  shown  by  Ernst  Grosse  that  to  the 
Greeks,  sculpture  incorporated  the  social  ideal-  at 
its  highest;  how  in  the  Middle  Ages,  architecture 
united  bodies  and  souls  in  the  halls  of  magnificent 
cathedrals;  how  during  the  Renaissance,  painting 
spoke  a  language  that  was  heeded  by  all  the  culti- 
vated peoples  of  Europe;  and  how  more  recently 
poetry  and  music  have  predominated.  Still  more 
recently,  it  has  seemed  that  the  newspaper  and  the 
cinema,  in  forms  often  far  from  esthetic  have  come 
to  dominate  the  thinking  of  millions. 

Today  art  stands  with  science  as  complementary 
and  influential  means  of  directing  the  human  race. 
As  science  through  normal  educational  processes 
has  resulted  in  the  enlargement  of  intellectual  life, 
so  art  has  enriched  the  emotional  life.  Among 
primitives,  art  exercised  its  control  through  group 
unification.  With  civilized  peoples  art  has  also 
occupied  a  leading  position  in  elevating  the  spirit 
of  mankind.  By  getting  into  the  mores  and  uti- 
lizing custom,  taboo,  and  ritual,  and  by  setting  new 
patterns  or  molds  for  shaping  public  opinion  and 
even  law,  art  becomes  a  deep-seated  and  often  un- 


GROUP  CONTROL  347 

suspected  indirect  force  in  determining  the  trend  of 
social  evolution. 

Art,  as  well  as  science  and  religion,  public  opinion 
and  law,  expresses  itself  most  forcibly  through  per- 
sonal behavior.  Control  through  personal  behavior 
as  a  vehicle  of  interpretation  and  through  the  pat- 
tern-examples that  are  personified,  constitutes  our 
next  main  theme. 


PROBLEMS 

1.  What  is  group  control? 

2.  What  is  a  custom? 

3.  Name  a  taboo  that  you  have  felt. 

4.  How  have  you  experienced  the  force  of  public  opinion? 

5.  What  is  law? 

6.  What  is  social  legislation? 

7.  Is  it  true  that  law  is  expensive  to  the  poor  man  who  is 

seeking  justice? 

8.  Why  has  art  been  so  generally  depreciated  in  the  United 

States? 

9.  Why  was  sculpture  more  effective  among  the  Greeks 

than  earlier  or  since? 

10.  Why  did  architecture  reach  the  zenith  of  its  power  in 

the  Middle  Ages? 

11.  Why  did  painting  exert  a  greater  force  in  the  Renais- 

sance than  at  any  other  time? 

12.  What  signs  do  you  see  of  an  increasing  appreciation  of 

art  in  the  United  States  ? 

13.  Is  culture  and  art  as  practical  an  aim  as  making  a  living? 

14.  Why  is  art  a  powerful  element  in  social  control? 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

GROUP  CONTROL  THROUGH 
PERSONAL  BEHAVIOR 


PERSONAL  CONTROL  is  represented  chiefly  by  atti- 
tudes, habits,  and  character.  These  depend  upon 
the  original  nature  of  man,  social  heritage,  and 
group  stimulation.  Society  by  stimulating  the  so- 
cial impulses  of  the  individual,  may  engender  a 
splendid  type  of  personal  control,  or  by  arousing  the 
anti-social  nature  of  man,  destructive  expressions 
of  personal  control.  Society  may  fail  to  stimulate 
any  of  the  native  impulses  and  leave  the  individual 
with  a  laissez  faire,  shiftless  attitude  toward  life, 
that  is,  may  fail  to  develop  any  appreciable  degree 
of  self  respect  or  personal  control  in  individuals. 
Through  its  influence  upon  the  attitudes  which  con- 
trol individuals,  society  possesses  a  grave  respon- 
sibility. In  order  to  understand  this  problem  it 
is  necessary  first  to  analyze  personal  behavior  fur- 
ther than  has  already  been  done. 

1.  Personal  Control.  The  individual  possesses 
ancestral  traits ;  he  is  also  characterized  by  qualities 
that  are  possessed  by  no  one  else.  The  ancestral 


GROUP  CONTROL  349 

traits  are  marvelously  combined  in  a  given  person ; 
it  is  estimated  that  the  total  population  of  the  world 
would  have  to  be  multiplied  forty  times  before  it 
would  occur  that  the  lines  on  the  tips  of  the  fore- 
finger of  the  right  hand  of  two  persons  would  be 
identical.  Every  individual  by  birth  is  unique. 

There  are  different  degrees  of  uniqueness.  There 
are  differences  in  degree  of  initiative,  in  the  inheri- 
tance of  musical  or  mathematical  ability,  and  also 
in  degree  of  sympathetic  response.  Individual  in- 
itiative and  energy  when  coupled  with  persistence 
lead  to  achievement  and  produce  a  type  of  genius. 
Energy  may  be  concentrated  by  nature,  producing 
a  born  genius ;  or  by  the  individual  himself,  result- 
ing in  a  genius  by  hard  work. 

At  any  rate  the  individual,  by  virtue  of  his  strong 
ego  and  of  his  uniqueness,  frequently  finds  himself 
in  conflict  with  the  group.  The  small  child  may 
fight  parental  control,  playground  control,  school 
control — with  fists  and  violence.  Whenever  the  in- 
dividual faces  control  suddenly  he  struggles  to  over- 
throw it  and  to  set  up  by  revolution  a  new  form  of 
control  such  as  suits  his  personal  interpretation. 

When  he  faces  control  in  a  milder  way,  he  may 
move  against  it  by  educational  means,  by  starting 
currents  of  contrary  opinion ;  he  ultimately  hopes  to 
create  a  new  form  of  control.  Thus  the  individual 
may  be  able  actually  to  control  the  current  forms  of 
control  by  setting  new  pattern  ideas.  If  these  find  a 


350  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

response  widespread  enough  in  human  needs,  they 
will  come  to  modify  the  prevailing  expressions  of 
control.  It  is  in  this  way  that  personal  behavior 
is  socially  dynamic. 

Personal  behavior  is  thus  a  force  of  primary  im- 
portance. Every  individual  has  a  sphere  of  in- 
fluence from  which  move  out  currents  of  social 
power.  In  its  elemental  forms,  personal  behavior  is 
non-social,  egoistic,  and  seeking  the  satisfaction  of 
its  own  inherent  impulses.  Elemental  behavior  is 
represented  by  the  child  who  is  learning  from  his 
experiences,  that  is,  from  his  experiments  in  making 
adjustments  to  the  environment,  both  physical  and 
social.  After  slamming  the  door  shut  on  his  finger 
once,  he  is  generally  cautious  thereafter.  After  de- 
fying a  firm,  wise  parent  once,  he  usually  comes  to 
see  the  wisdom  in  obedience.  As  he  grows  older 
he  learns  to  give  consideration  to  the  interests  of 
others.  If  he  does  not  do  so,  he  finds  himself  iso- 
lated from  friends,  and  so  from  selfish  impulses  he 
may  develop  a  kind  of  sociableness.  The  destruction 
of  articles  which  belong  to  parents  or  other  persons 
brings  punishment. 

When  self  consciousness  develops,  as  over  against 
consciousness  of  other  persons,  moral  conflicts 
for  the  individual  arise  with  frequency,  often  of  a 
very  severe  nature.  In  the  play  group  especially, 
the  individual  soon  learns  that  he  must  submerge 
his  interests  at  times,  and  gladly  so,  to  the  welfare 


GROUP  CONTROL  351 

of  others.  In  the  case  of  boys,  this  lesson  is  often 
not  learned  until  the  individual  has  received  blows 
from  the  fists  of  other  boys. 

Work  itself  is  a  character  builder.  The  individ- 
ual who  becomes  a  successful  worker,  must  possess 
or  develop  the  fundamental  social  qualities  of  pur- 
pose, foresight,  reliability,  and  loyalty.  In  modern 
industry,  concerted  effort  is  necessary. 

The  arts  and  crafts,  aside  from  their  influence 
as  work,  have  a  distinctly  elevating  and  refining 
effect.  They  give  some  visible  or  audible  embodi- 
ment of  order  or  form.  In  conforming  to  this  order, 
the  child,  the  primitive  man,  and  the  civilized  man 
are  in  training  for  that  more  conscious  control 
where  order  and  law  may  oppose  the  impulses. 

A  participation  in  family  life  tends  to  develop 
and  to  make  habitual  a  high  type  of  control,  to  make 
life  serious,  to  overcome  selfishness,  and  to  project 
thought  forward  into  the  future.  Family  life  tends 
to  arouse  in  the  child  the  traits  of  sympathy,  of 
give-and-take,  and  of  altruism.  Work,  participation 
in  family  life,  and  related  activities  require  that 
the  individual  organize  those  habits  which  are  the 
bases  of  self  control,  instead  of  yielding  entirely  to 
the  impulses  for  pleasure. 

Personal  control  is  generally  determined  by  group 
standards  as  revealed  in  customs  and  public  opin- 
ion. To  a  surprising  degree  people  live  according 
to  the  dictates  of  custom  control.  If  they  live  up 


352  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

to  the  level  of  the  generally  accepted  moral  stand- 
ards of  the  group  they  feel  at  ease.  If  one's  group 
endorses  automobile  speeding,  cheating  in  examina- 
tions, midnight  carousals,  or  lying  in  reporting 
property  to  the  assessor  the  guilty  person  feels  no 
pangs  of  conscience  but  may  even  boast  of  his  anti- 
social action.  Nearly  all  the  actions  of  average  in- 
dividuals have  their  control  bases  either  in  elemen- 
tary factors,  customs,  or  public  opinion. 

Each  profession  and  institution  has  a  code  of 
standards  which  guides  the  ordinary  individual  in 
his  judgments.  The  individual  usually  plays  ac- 
cording to  the  rules  of  the  game ;  or  if  the  rules  do 
not  seem  just  to  him,  he  may  grumble  and  not  play 
the  game  at  all,  allowing  the  unfair  rules  to  go  un- 
challenged, or  he  may  fight  to  change  the  rules  by 
which  he  is  controlled.  Custom  and  opinion  mo- 
rality constitute  the  character  standards  of  almost 
all  people. 

Custom  and  opinion  are  often  irrational;  they 
may  be  positively  injurious  but  be  maintained  in 
force  by  an  unscrupulous  minority.  The  merely 
trivial  may  become  the  group  standard;  the  truly 
worth  while  may  be  ignored.  Group  control  often 
crushes  individual  uniqueness. 

For  the  sake  of  his  own  highest  functioning  and 
also  for  the  sake  of  group  advance  the  individual 
cannot  always  accept  group  control  uncritically. 
There  is  the  necessity  of  exercising  discriminating 


GROUP  CONTROL  353 

judgment  regarding  current  standards  and  ideals. 
It  is  fortunate  for  any  group  that  the  more  socially 
advanced  members  keep  their  minds  open  to  the 
defects  of  existing  beliefs,  and  that  they  .reflect  on 
their  own  behavior  in  relation  to  existing  controls. 

Certain  types  of  group  control  are  useful  for  the 
age  in  which  they  originated,  but  normally  are  car- 
ried over  to  a  succeeding  age,  where  they  are  no 
longer  sufficient  because  new  group  and  personal 
needs  have  arisen.  The  socially  more  alert  members 
recognize  the  insufficiency  of  ancient  controls  and 
climb  to  higher  levels  of  personal  integrity  and 
usefulness. 

If  I  control  myself  because  I  am  obliged  to  do 
so  in  order  to  succeed  in  a  profession,  I  am  living 
on  a  relatively  low  ethical  plane.  If  I  control  my- 
self socially,  because  I  wish  to  maintain  the  respect 
of  my  group,  I  am  still  living  on  a  low  level.  If  I 
control  myself  socially  because  of  having  thought 
my  actions  through  in  their  relation  to  existing 
group  needs,  then  I  have  attained  a  relatively  high 
ethical  achievement.  In  the  first  two  cases  group 
control  regulates  me;  in  the  third  illustration  I 
am  likely  to  become  an  influence  over  current  con- 
trols. 

Everyone  exercises  a  degree  of  social  control 
over  himself  with  reference  to  the  standards  of  his 
own  immediate  groups,  the  family,  the  school  group, 
the  fraternity,  business  associates,  but  it  is  the  ex- 


354  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

ceptional  person  who  controls  himself  socially  with 
reference  to  the  needs  of  other  groups,  other  nations, 
the  world  group.  It  is  an  important  accomplishment 
to  judge  one's  control  of  himself  according  to  so- 
cially justifiable  values ;  it  is  unique  when  one  keeps 
his  mind  open  to  defects  and  excellencies  of  his  im- 
mediate groups  in  their  dealings  with  and  attitudes 
toward  other  groups.  It  is  also  a  high  calling  to 
reflect  socially  on  one's  own  behavior  in  relation 
to  the  welfare  of  mankind  everywhere,  and  espec- 
ially, to  live  up  to  the  dictates  of  such  reflections. 

2.  Problems  in  Personal  Control.  For  an  individ- 
ual to  live  so  that  his  personal  behavior  will  meet 
the  test  of  social  values,  and  so  that  he  will  be  a 
constructive  force  in  the  field  of  social  control,  in- 
volves many  problems.  (1)  Ethical  dualism  refers 
to  the  fact  that  an  individual  has  at  least  two  sets 
of  moral  standards :  one  he  applies  to  himself  and 
his  friends;  the  other,  to  those  who  are  mere  ac- 
quaintances, strangers,  or  enemies.  Nearly  every- 
one excuses  in  his  own  life  some  habits  and  ways 
of  doing  which  he  despises  when  he  sees  them  in 
the  lives  of  other  persons.  That  which  is  lying  when 
perceived  in  others  is  mere  "stretching  the  truth" 
or  a  part  of  the  truth  in  one's  own  case.  What  is 
vicious  when  countenanced  by  the  French,  is  justi- 
fiable when  practiced  by  the  Germans,  if  one  is  a 
German ;  and  vice  versa. 


GROUP  CONTROL  355 

Ethical  dualism  is  in  reality  ethical  polytheism. 
A  person  has  one  standard  of  control  for  himself, 
another  for  his  nearest  friends,  still  another  for 
strangers,  and  yet  another  for  enemies.  It  is  prob- 
ably true  that  every  person  has  a  different  ethical 
standard  for  each  individual  with  whom  he  comes 
in  contact.  This  status  of  having  many  standards 
of  control  by  which  one  measures  the  personalities 
of  different  individuals  creates  a  special  problem  for 
the  individual.  He  is  perplexed  when  he  attempts 
to  treat  all  persons  democratically,  that  is,  on  the 
same  basis,  and  finds  that  he  has  already  put  each 
one  on  a  different  ethical  level  and  himself  on  a  still 
different  plane. 

A  group  of  105  college  students  were  asked  by  the 
writer  this  question:  Is  your  personal  ethical 
standard  higher  in  your  dealing  with  your  instruc- 
tors or  with  your  fellow  students  ?  Sixty-six  replied 
that  they  exercised  higher  standards  of  personal 
control  over  themselves  in  dealing  with  their  fellow 
students,  twenty-eight  declared  that  they  held  them- 
selves to  a  higher  standard  of  conduct  in  dealing 
with  instructors  than  with  their  fellow  students, 
while  eleven  asserted  that  personally  they  con- 
ducted themselves  according  to  the  same  standard 
in  their  relations  with  instructors  and  fellow  stu- 
dents. Ninety-four  out  of  105  students  thus  stated 
that  they  conducted  themselves  on  one  moral  level 
toward  instructors  and  another,  generally  higher, 


356  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

toward  their  fellow  students.  The  explanation  of  this 
common  reaction  is  found  in  the  fact  that  there  is  a 
more  personal  relationship  between  student  and 
student  than  between  student  and  instructor.  In 
other  words,  there  is  more  fellow-feeling  and  a 
greater  spirit  of  accommodation  and  co-operation 
between  students  than  between  students  and  in- 
structors. 

(2)  Ignorance  of  what  are  one's  highest  social 
obligations  is  common.    In  an  increasingly  complex 
social  order  it  is  becoming  more  and  more  difficult 
for  the  individual  to  decide  how  to  act  wisely  and 
socially.    At  municipal  elections  it  is  almost  impos- 
sible to  learn  who  are  the  better  candidates.     In 
national  presidential  elections  it  is  still  more  diffi- 
cult, oftentimes,  to  know  which  is  the  best  party 
ticket  to  support,  because  each  represents  a  combi- 
nation of  many  unworthy  elements  along  with  the 
worthy. 

(3)  Inability  to  live  up  to  the  knowledge  of  the 
socially  best  is  also  common.    Why  are  not  people 
as  social  as  they  actually  know  how  to  be  social? 
Why  do  worthy  individuals  act  in  ways  for  which 
they  are  immediately  sorry?     Why  do  not  people 
always  do  as  well  as  they  know  how  to  do  ?  In  other 
words,  why  is  the  individual  unable  to  control  his 
impulses  to  the  degree  that  he  resolves  to  do? 

The  answer  to  these    questions    is    that   man's 
strong  instinctive  tendencies  are  representative  in 


GROUP  CONTROL  357 

many  ways  of  ancient  levels  of  action  and  planes 
of  activity  which  fall  far  below  currently  derived 
standards.  A  sudden  surprise  or  a  subtle  suggestion 
will  often  snap  the  higher  forms  of  self  control,  thus 
putting  the  lower  impulsive  nature  in  positions  ot 
power. 

(4)  Professional  standards  of  control  fall  below 
personal  ethics ;  they  often  constrain  an  individual 
to  act  below  his  own  best  judgment.  In  medicine 
a  man  is  justly  required  to  report  cases  of  smallpox 
to  health  authorities  so  that  well  people  may  be 
safeguarded,  but  professional  ethics  and  public 
opinion  compel  the  physician  to  keep  wholly  silent 
concerning  venereal  diseases,  even  though  such 
silence  may  subject  women  to  certain  and  terrible 
contagion. 

The  standards  which  control  modern  business 
groups  possess  far-reaching  influence.  In  the  begin- 
ning of  merchant-trading,  a  visiting  tradesman  was 
viewed  not  only  as  a  stranger  but  also  as  an  alien. 
The  group  might  do  to  him,  or  he  might  to  it,  any- 
thing that  either  could.  Such  forms  of  control  were 
ethical.  For  example,  it  was  considered  by  the 
visiting  tradesman  to  be  excellent  business  if  he 
could  steal  some  of  the  natives'  wives  and  children. 
In  certain  aspects  the  early  law  of  trade  was  but 
little  removed  from  the  law  of  theft.  Trade  group 
relations  at  first  were  not  controlled  by  the  usual 
standards  of  the  family  group  or  the  local  commu- 


358  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

nity  group.  The  regulations  governing  trade  were 
practically  left  for  millenniums  in  the  hands  of 
groups  of  traders  and  merchants  themselves. 

The  possession  of  wealth  was  considered  in  early 
days  as  evidence  of  the  possession  of  ability,  and 
therefore,  of  virtue.  No  questions  were  asked  about 
the  methods  by  which  wealth  had  been  acquired. 
Shrewdness  was  synonymous  with  virtue.  To  the 
support  of  the  merchant  came  the  individualistic 
philosophy  with  the  teaching  that  the  god  of  the 
individual  is  supreme,  with  the  implication  that 
every  individual  knows  best  what  is  for  his  own 
good,  despite  the  fact  that  he  is  partly  controlled 
by  highly  selfish  impulses  that  are  epochs  old.  Hence 
the  average  individual  could  easily  confirm  his  own 
idea  that  the  pursuance  of  his  selfish  ends  in  almost 
any  possible  way  was  justifiable  and  proper. 

Primitive  conceptions  of  trading  still  persist ;  the 
individualistic  philosophy  gathers  millions  of  dol- 
lars to  its  support.  The  standard  still  prevails  that 
an  individual  may  promote  his  welfare  in  any  way 
that  does  not  conflict  with  the  law  as  enforced.  It 
is  often  not  considered  wrong  "to  get  around  the 
law." 

Business  has  too  often  emphasized  the  rules :  To 
sell  as  dearly  as  the  market  will  permit;  and,  to 
pay  labor  as  little  as  it  can  be  induced  to  accept. 
As  a  result  of  these  standards,  reactionary  conser- 
vatism and  bold  radicalism  have  clashed:  in  coun- 


GROUP  CONTROL  359 

tries,  such  as  Russia,  the  latter  won  in  1917;  in 
other  countries  the  struggle  goes  on. 

New  standards  of  business  control  are  develop- 
ing. Business  for  service,  is  supplanting  the  slogan, 
Business  for  private  profit.  Service,  however,  is  be- 
ing interpreted  in  selfish  terms,  that  is,  in  the 
following  way:  I  will  serve  most  in  order  to  get 
the  most  trade  and  largest  profit.  A  higher  stand- 
ard of  control  for  group  relations,  especially  bus- 
iness and  industrial  group  relations,  is  springing  up, 
namely,  that  of  the  Nazarene  whose  life  represents 
the  principle  of  serving  without  having  personal 
gains  as  the  goal,  that  is,  the  standard  of  Unselfish 
Service. 

It  is  the  ideal  of  unselfish  service  which  is  in 
conflict  with  profitism.  If  the  former  does  not  win, 
then  the  alternative  is  appearing  in  the  form  of  rad- 
ical socialism  with  its  disrespect  of  established  so- 
cial values,  its  arbitrary,  autocratic  methods,  and 
its  new  form  of  class  control. 

(5)  In  an  earlier  chapter  the  ideals  which  con- 
trol nation  groups  were  discussed ;  it  was  indicated 
that  the  individual  today  often  finds  his  national 
patriotism  in  conflict  with  his  concept  of  world 
justice.  Without  relinquishing  a  single  virtue  of 
nationalism  as  judged  by  the  world  group  needs, 
individuals  are  being  forced  to  revise  their  patri- 
otism standards,  giving  them  a  less  selfish  connota- 
tion, purifying  them  from  narrow  adoration,  im- 


360  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

pulsive  shouting,  and  blind  subservience.  They 
are  beginning  to  work  toward  a  day  when  nation 
groups  shall  treat  one  another  according  to  stand- 
ards of  control  based  on  world  needs,  and  not  upon 
the  selfish  desire  of  chauvinists,  imperialists,  or  in- 
dustrial profiteers. 

3.  Leadership  and  Personal  Control.  Leadership 
refers  primarily  to  the  traits  of  initiative,  energy, 
and  persistence  that  are  possessed  by  every  normal 
individual,  as  well  as  to  the  qualities  of  outstanding 
persons  in  the  public  eye.  Leadership  is  common 
to  all  normal  individuals.  Everyone  exercises  some 
influence  over  his  fellows  and  to  that  extent  is  a 
leader;  his  leadership  ability  is  related  to  all  leader- 
ship ability. 

The  schools  do  not  give  sufficient  training  in 
leadership;  they  stress  the  importance  of  copying. 
Because  school  curricula  and  educators  have  em- 
phasized the  copying  of  standards  and  the  initiating 
of  examples,  pupils  in  schools  have  developed  what 
have  been  referred  to  in  a  preceding  chapter  as 
"school  activities,''  with  opportunities  to  do,  and  to 
lead.  School  activities  imply  that  the  ordinary 
study-classroom  procedure  constitutes  "school 
passivities,"  with  a  minimum  chance  for  initiative 
and  energy  to  be  expressed  along  new  lines.  The 
schools  in  giving  attention  to  the  intellectual  side  of 
life,  have  neglected  the  feeling  and  especially  the 


GROUP  CONTROL  361 

activity  phases  of  life  with  all  their  implications  of 
leadership.  Training  courses  in  leadership  are 
needed. 

The  conspicuous  leader,  such  as  a  general,  a  well- 
known  poet,  or  a  president  of  the  United  States, 
possesses  inherited  qualities  which  have  been  stim- 
ulated into  achievement  by  the  social  environment 
or  which  the  individual  has  developed  without  or  in 
spite  of  environmental  aid.  The  exceptional  leader 
may  be  explained  as  a  product  of  superior  inherited 
ability,  or  of  good  fortune  that  befalls  a  person  of 
ordinary  accomplishments,  or  of  group  selection 
and  stimulation,  or  of  sheer  initiative,  energy,  and 
concentration. 

Superior  heredity  is  rare ;  it  accounts  for  the  abil- 
ity of  only  a  small  percentage  of  well  known  leaders. 
The  highly  talented  person  is  likely  to  rest  too  much 
on  his  inherited  ability ;  he  may  fail  to  conserve  his 
precious  talents,  he  is  apt  to  become  a  "crank,"  and 
never  develop  a  balanced,  rounded  personality. 

The  person  who  becomes  a  leader  by  good  fortune 
is  rare.  He  is  usually  an  individual  of  considerable 
undeveloped  ability  and  common  sense.  The  occa- 
sion stimulates  him  and  in  responding  he  may  sur- 
prise not  only  his  friends  but  even  himself.  There 
are  undoubtedly  countless  persons  who  would 
measure  up  to  important  leadership  responsibilities, 
providing  responsibility  should  fall  gradually  or 
even  suddenly  upon  them. 


362  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

Occasionally  the  group  selects  a  person  for  one 
position  after  another  of  increasing  importance.  By 
common  sense,  attention  to  work,  and  ability  not 
noticeably  above  the  average,  the  individual  moves 
up  from  one  leadership  position  to  another. 

Then  there  is  the  leader  who  has  no  more  than 
ordinary  ability,  who  has  few  home  advantages  or 
perhaps  actual  discouragement  from  home,  who 
suffers  one  social  defeat  after  another,  but  who 
drives  ahead  in  season  and  out,  overcoming  handi- 
caps, even  prejudices,  and  hostility,  and  finally 
reaching  and  succeeding  in  important  leadership 
positions. 

Leadership  is  the  counterpart  of  followership.  To 
be  a  good  leader  one  must  know  the  secret  of  follow- 
ing well.  To  follow  well  or  to  lead  well,  one  must 
possess  control  over  self.  The  Wisdom  writer  was 
correct  when  he  said  that  he  who  ruleth  his  spirit 
is  greater  than  he  who  taketh  a  city.  Ruling  one's 
impulses  is  fundamental  to  becoming  a  successful 
group  leader. 

Self  control  leads  to  control  of  groups. 

The  leader  may  use  his  control  ability  for  purely 
selfish  glorification,  or  he  may  exercise  control  for 
no  selfish  purpose,  giving  his  energy,  life,  and  love 
freely,  that  other  people  may  have  larger  opportu- 
nities to  live  and  to  be  useful ;  he  may  ask  nothing 
for  self  or  for  a  group  of  privileged  friends. 

Group  leadership  originates  in  crises  and  con- 


GROUP  CONTROL  363 

flicts,  and  hence  is  doubly  significant  as  a  force  in 
social  control.  Sometimes  the  situation  which 
produces  leaders  is  a  conflict  between  an  individual 
and  his  group.  Such  cases  were  common  in  primi- 
tive days ;  they  are  also  frequent  today  in  primary 
or  small  groups.  Other  situations  which  produce 
leaders  are  conflicts  between  groups.  At  all  events, 
he  who  first  shows  ability  to  cope  with  a  highly 
problematic  situation  becomes  a  leader  and  an  out- 
standing force  in  social  control. 

Leadership  functions  in  antagonistic  phases  of 
life,  in  maintaining  organized  group  processes,  and 
in  securing  social  changes.  Leaders  who  are  trying 
to  keep  time-honored  institutions  intact  and  to  up- 
hold customs  are  in  conflict  with  other  leaders  who 
are  trying  to  direct  people  toward  new  methods  of 
control.  A  group  which  is  dominated  by  the  leaders 
of  traditional  methods  tends  to  fall  behind  in  the 
march  of  progress ;  and  a  group  in  which  the  leaders 
favoring  change  are  untrained,  tends  to  go  to  pieces 
through  lack  of  stability. 

A  plurality  of  leadership  is  apparently  neces- 
sary; its  unity  is  found  in  a  balance  between  the 
conservative  and  liberal  forces.  A  plurality  of 
leadership  may  result  in  progress  if  its  competitive 
and  stimulative  processes  are  kept  on  productive 
rather  than  destructive  levels.  It  may  seek  out  and 
stimulate  the  undeveloped  capacity  of  peoples. 

The   highest   type  of  leader  is  a  true    man    or 


364  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

woman.  Possessing  views  which  embrace  the  world, 
his  sense  of  humanity  is  so  keen  that  he  seems  one 
with  the  common  people.  His  moral  courage  knows 
no  bounds.  He  combines  the  endurance  of  the 
trained  warrior,  the  sagacity  of  the  captain  of  in- 
dustry, and  the  power  of  socialized  attitudes  guided 
by  reason  and  propelled  by  indomitable  will  power. 
The  greatest  problem  solvers  are  the  world's  greatest 
leaders,  because  they  are  or  will  become  the  domi- 
nating forces  in  social  control. 


GROUP  CONTROL          365 


PROBLEMS 

1.  When  do  we  most  admire  goodness? 

2.  Is  it  of  credit  to  a  person  to  be  offered  a  bribe? 

3.  Does  a  corporation  or  a  labor  union  have  a  conscience? 

4.  Why  do  some  honest  persons  feel  no  compunction  in 

cheating  a  railroad  corporation? 

5.  Is  the  ability  or  the  character  of  the  individual  more 

important  from  a  social  viewpoint? 

6.  Do  you  agree:  Whatever  works  is  right? 

7.  "At  what  points  is  the  moral  energy  of  college  men 

and  women  most  severely  tested?" 

8.  When  is  patience  not  a  virtue? 

9.  When  is  benevolence  anti-social? 

10.  Illustrate  graft. 

11.  Which   of  the   qualities   of   leaders   mentioned   in   this 

chapter  would  you  prefer  to  have? 

12.  "What  qualities  create  a  prophet?" 

13.  "Does  the  need  of  leadership  diminish  with  the  spread 

of  democracy?" 

14.  Have  the  characteristics  of  leadership  changed  in  the 

history  of  society? 

15.  Why  is  the  leader  so  important  a  factor  in  social  control? 


CHAPTER  XIX 
GROUP   CONTROL   PROBLEMS 


PERSONAL  CONTROL  often  breaks  down.  Some- 
times it  functions  well  in  behalf  of  the  individual's 
selfish  interests  or  of  the  interests  of  a  group  of 
personal  friends,  but  it  often  conflicts  with  the 
welfare  of  a  larger  group,  such  as  the  city  or  nation. 
Personal  control  based  on  narrow  social  attitudes 
may  easily  lead  to  delinquency  and  crime.  Even  if 
a  given  type  of  personal  control  does  not  violate  a 
law  or  ordinance  it  may  openly  or  subtly  weaken 
moral  fibre  and  by  degrees  destroy  human  oppor- 
tunities for  development.  In  so  doing,  it  may  not 
be  anti-legal,  but  anti-social. 

1.  Causes  of  Anti-Group  Conduct.  The  causes  of 
anti-group  conduct  are  exceedingly  complex.  They 
are  found  in  the  physical  environment,  the  social 
environment,  and  the  individual's  reactions  to  his 
social  and  physical  environment. 

(1)  The  physical  environment  affects  personal 
control  through  the  influence  of  such  factors  as 
climate,  seasons,  temperature,  and  food.  A  hot 
climate  leads  to  offences  against  persons,  and  a  cold 


GROUP  CONTROL  367 

climate  to  offences  against  property.  The  cold  winter 
season  results  in  more  suffering  from  cold  and 
hunger  than  does  the  summer,  and  ranks  higher  in 
offences  such  as  theft.  The  spring  and  summer  are 
noted  for  the  prevalence  of  sex  offences. 

(2)  The  social  environment  affects  personal  con- 
trol in  a  variety  of  ways.  A  higher  ratio  of  crimi- 
nality is  found  among  the  unmarried  and  divorced 
than  among  those  living  a  family  life.  This  fact 
may  be  explained  by  the  greater  temptations  of  the 
homeless,  or  to  another  fact,  namely,  that  the  same 
temper  and  habits  which  render  a  man  unfit  for 
marriage  and  unfavorable  to  its  restraints,  may  be 
the  same  anti-social  tendencies  which  manifest 
themselves  in  crime. 

Density  of  population  is  frequently  accompanied 
by  a  proportional  increase  in  anti-social  conduct. 
The  large  city  is  the  hiding  place  of  people  with  a 
dark  record.  It  flaunts  the  allurements  of  wealth 
and  luxury  in  the  face  of  poverty ;  it  excites  envy ; 
and  it  harbors  the  solicitors  of  vice. 

Customs  such  as  the  public  whipping  of  offenders, 
torturing,  and  lynching  provoke  criminal  impulses. 
Severe  punishments  and  public  executions  do  not 
repress  crime  but  increase  it  by  the  example  which 
the  state  sets  in  taking  life  or  in  arousing  the  spirit 
of  revenge. 

Poverty  is  a  cause  of  crime,  and  so  is  riches,  for 
the  very  rich  frequently  seem  to  be  as  subject  to 


368  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

vice  as  are  the  very  poor.  Unexpected  industrial 
changes,  especially  crises  and  depressions,  put  char- 
acter to  unusual  strains  and  increase  the  number 
of  law-breakers.  There  are  many  who  are  con- 
strained to  steal  as  was  Jean  Valjean,  rather  than 
see  the  members  of  their  own  .families  starve  and 
die.  In  a  day  of  ostentatious  display  of  unlimited 
wealth,  the  poor  man  who  is  diligent  and  honest, 
and  yet  whose  family  cannot  obtain  all  the  neces- 
sities of  life,  sometimes  concludes  that  "property  is 
robbery." 

There  is  a  general  conviction  which  is  being 
honestly  held  by  multitudes  that  many  of  those  who 
are  very  rich  have  obtained  their  wealth  at  the  cost 
of  the  community  and  without  returning  an  equiv- 
alent. The  workingman,  pinched  by  need  feels  no 
special  sense  of  wrong  in  taking  a  small  portion  of 
what  he  considers  "immorally  acquired  wealth." 
The  sense  of  having  been  wronged  combined  with 
driving  hunger  lead  the  individual  to  justify  his 
act. 

The  corruption  of  partisan  politics  favors  the 
increase  of  crime.  "When  the  unscrupulous  agents 
of  city  railways,  railroads,  and  other  powerful  cor- 
porations," says  one  authority,  "control  the  elec- 
tions of  aldermen  in  their  own  interest  and  against 
the  public,  crime  is  fostered  through  the  very  insti- 
tutions of  justice  and  law." 

Suggestion  causes  crime.    Pictures  and  reports  of 


GROUP  CONTROL  369 

brutal  prize  fights  set  boys  to  fighting  in  alleys  and 
rear  yards.  The  film  showing  a  spectacular  robbery 
starts  anti-social  ideas  to  work  in  the  minds  of 
youthful  spectators.  Sensational  accounts  of  bur- 
glaries and  trials  in  the  ordinary  newspapers,  and  in 
the  police  gazettes  that  are  handed  about  in  pool 
rooms  and  other  gathering  places  of  men  arouse 
desires  that  sometimes  culminate  in  evil.  "Gangs" 
of  boys  are  frequently  lead  into  law  breaking  by 
the  "dare"  of  some  leader. 

Occupations  may  cause  crime.  Employment  in 
dishonest  kinds  of  business,  in  gambling  dens,  or  in 
liquor  establishments  tends  toward  the  formation 
of  evil  habits.  Officials  are  tempted  to  abuse 
public  trust  in  them  and  to  be  bribed.  Merchants 
and  manufacturers  are  drawn  into  fraud,  embezzle- 
ment, and  forgery,  while  laborers  commit  theft, 
disturb  public  order,  and  make  assaults. 

(3)  The  individual's  reactions  to  his  environ- 
ment bear  a  causal  relation  to  anti-social  conduct. 
Some  individuals  are  moral  imbeciles  by  birth,  and 
are  never  able  to  distinguish  between  right  and 
wrong.  Others  are  born  mentally  defective  so  that 
at  the  age  of  eighteen,  for  example,  they  have  the 
mental  control  and  inhibitions  of  children  of  per- 
haps six,  ten,  or  twelve  years  of  age.  They  possess 
however  the  physical  passions  of  eighteen-year-old 
adolescents,  and  in  a  complex  environment  the  in- 
adequately controlled  physical  passions  lead  to  evil. 


370  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

Sexual  nature  is  a  causal  factor  in  anti-social 
conduct.  There  are  about  five  times  as  many  male 
offenders  as  female  offenders,  a  fact  that  is  probably 
due  to  the  greater  aggressiveness  of  men.  As  women 
go  into  business,  enter  public  employment,  and 
hold  offices,  their  temptations  increase,  and  their 
criminal  record  is  augmented.  Moreover,  women 
when  once  guilty  of  sexual  offences  are  not  so  easily 
restored  to  normal  personal  control  as  are  men, 
partly  because  of  the  breaking  down  of  a  more 
sensitive  organism,  of  the  despair  which  seizes  them, 
and  because  the  gates  to  respectable  social  life  are 
closed  to  them,  although  not  to  men  who  are  sim- 
ilar offenders. 

The  individual's  problems  of  self  control  vary 
with  his  age.  In  his  earliest  years  he  is  held  unac- 
countable for  his  acts.  Young  children  who  are 
frequently  tempted  by  hunger  or  compelled  by  their 
parents  to  go  upon  the  streets  to  pilfer  often  be- 
come guilty  of  theft.  In  middle  adolescence  the 
rise  of  the  physical  passions  leads  to  fighting,  to  vic- 
ious and  immoral  assaults  upon  persons,  and  to 
disturbances  of  the  public  peace.  The  bulk  of  crimes 
falls  between  the  ages  of  twenty  and  forty.  With 
riper  years  crimes  of  cold  calculation,  frauds,  and 
bankruptcy  are  often  committed. 

Alcoholism  has  led  to  breakdowns  of  personal 
control,  to  vice,  and  crime.  Alcohol  weakens  "the 
inhibitory  power  of  the  higher  nerve  centers,  con- 


GROUP  CONTROL  371 

fuses  the  intellect,  dulls  the  conscience,  and  sets 
anger  and  lust  free  without  rein  or  bridle."  Alcohol- 
ism has  led  to  brutal  treatment  of  wives  and  chil- 
dren, has  broken  down  woman's  finest  restraints, 
and  debauched  otherwise  competent  citizens.  Under 
the  influence  of  liquor,  persons  have  committed 
sex  offences,  with  high  powered  automobiles  rode 
down  little  children  in  the  streets,  and  have  com- 
mitted heinous  murder. 

A  lack  of  a  sense  of  individual  responsibility 
causes  crime.  The  individual  in  all  ordinary  cases 
of  anti-group  conduct  must  bear  a  part  of  the 
responsibility.  Within  limits  the  individual  is  a 
choosing  agency,  and  hence  must  assume  a  share 
in  the  responsibility  for  the  crime  that  he  commits. 

Every  child,  even  of  the  most  cultivated  parents, 
requires  to  be  taught  what  his  group  obligations  are, 
for  he  will  not  recognize  all  these  promptly,  and 
much  less  will  he  instinctively  live  up  to  their  im- 
plications. He  needs  to  be  trained,  controlled,  dis- 
ciplined, and  helped  into  the  ways  of  social  co- 
operation. Even  the  children  of  refined,  generous, 
and  self  sacrificing  parents  are  often  guilty  of  act- 
ing in  intensely  selfish  ways.  Even  the  noblest  of 
youths  must  learn  personal  control  and  develop 
their  social  dispositions.  Crime  lurks  near  vigorous 
youths,  and  sneaking  vice  is  characteristic  of  those 
who  have  been  whipped  into  silence,  resentment, 
or  fear.  All  types  of  adolescents  need  careful, 


372  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

steady  discipline  until  they  can  stand  alone  in 
maturity,  with  the  momentum  of  good  habits  to 
keep  them  upright. 

2.  The  Apprehension  and  Trial  of  Offenders.  In 
the  social  machinery  for  dealing  with  offenders,  the 
police  play  a  leading  part.  The  functions  of  the 
police  have  long  been  considered  those  of  repressing 
crime.  The  first  duty  of  the  police  is  to  apprehend 
criminals.  They  are  in  a  good  position  to  gather 
evidence,  because  they  are  continually  on  the  watch 
for  crime.  They  fail  frequently  in  securing  evi- 
dence, because  many  of  them  do  not  know  what  is 
evidence.  An  important  development  in  the  police 
agency  that  has  come  about  in  recent  years  is  repre- 
sented by  the  traffic  squad,  who  compose  an  ad- 
ministrative body,  who  do  not  acquire  an  offensively 
aggressive  manner,  and  who  are  more  courteous 
than  the  regular  police. 

The  concept  of  police  as  reformers  is  noteworthy. 
Joseph  Fels  has  expressed  the  point  when  he  said 
that  his  idea  would  be  to  make  every  policeman  an 
extremely  valuable  public  servant,  rather  than  as 
now,  offering  him  so  many  opportunities  for  dete- 
rioration. He  would  have  policemen  become  a  group 
of  social  workers,  knowing  every  family  and  home 
in  their  respective  districts,  and  even  becoming  the 
neighborhood  representative  of  the  city  government. 
The  policeman  could  serve  notices  and  writs  of  the 


GROUP  CONTROL  373 

courts,  collect  delinquent  taxes,  inspect  street  clean- 
ing, see  that  garbage  is  properly  handled,  secure 
information  for  the  departments  of  health  and 
charities,  see  that  all  children  in  the  district  are  in 
school — these  are  some  of  the  things  that  policemen 
might  do  as  community  workers. 

The  policewoman  has  become  an  integral  phase 
of  the  police  agency.  Nearly  all  cities  of  size  have 
a  staff  of  policewomen ,  engaged  in  work  which  men 
admittedly  cannot  perform  as  well.  They  are  made 
responsible  in  part  for  the  conditions  which  exist 
at  dance  halls,  vaudeville  theaters,  and  motion  pic- 
ture shows;  they  attempt  to  safeguard  girls  and 
women  from  the  downward  path.  The  procedure, 
no  longer  an  innovation,  has  proved  its  own  justi- 
fication in  the  increasing  freedom  with  which  girls 
and  women  appeal  to  the  police  department  for 
advice  and  protection,  in  the  handling  of  special 
cases  where  a  woman's  sympathy  may  be  more 
effective  than  a  man's  power,  and  in  the  care  given 
to  young  girls  or  women  who  are  brought  to  police 
stations. 

Social  defense  has  made  necessary  a  body  of  pub- 
lic prosecutors.  The  public  prosecutor,  or  district 
attorney,  needs  not  only  legal  training  but  also 
training  in  criminology  and  sociology,  in  order  that 
he  may  know  the  scientific  requirements  of  social 
defense.  This  knowledge  should  be  supplemented 
by  first-hand  experience  in  working  in  prisons  with 


374  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

offenders. 

Corresponding  to  the  system  of  public  prosecu- 
tion there  is  arising  a  system  of  public  defense,  that 
is,  of  defense  for  helpless  offenders  or  alleged  offen- 
ders. There  is  often  a  decided  helplessness  of  the 
defendant  in  a  trial  in  the  face  of  an  organized 
legal  staff  of  trained  prosecutors.  These  defendants 
who  have  money  can  employ  able  counsel,  in  fact, 
they  often  employ  such  shrewd  counsel  that  public 
prosecution  is  unduly  hindered  and  nonplussed, 
with  the  result  that  trials  run  a  course  of  several 
weeks,  and  guilty  but  powerful  defendants  escape 
their  due  punishment.  But  when  a  defendant  is  poor 
and  unable  to  employ  counsel  as  able  as  that  in 
the  district  attorney's  office  he  is  at  a  serious  dis- 
advantage. 

As  a  result  of  this  need,  interested  persons  have 
organized  themselves  under  the  title  of  a  Legal  Aid 
Society,  and  furnished  free  of  charge  legal  assist- 
ance to  defendants  without  money,  or  who  are  im- 
migrants without  a  knowledge  of  the  rules  and 
customs  of  the  country  and  who  do  not  know  the 
language.  In  various  parts  of  the  United  States 
the  public  defender's  office  has  been  created.  Ac- 
cording to  this  plan,  the  state  recognizing  the  dis- 
advantage of  some  of  its  members,  has  established 
officially  a  system  of  legal  aid  and  advice  for  the 
advantage  of  those  persons  who  have  fallen  into 
trouble  and  are  unable  themselves  properly  to  pre- 


GROUP  CONTROL  375 

sent  their  cases.  The  public  defender's  office  rep- 
resents an  attempt  to  secure  an  increased  degree  of 
social  justice.  The  introduction  of  women  to  jury 
service  has  been  successful ;  women  have  proved  as 
good  jurors  as  men.  Often  women  of  high  qualifi- 
cations are  available  for  jury  service  whereas  men 
of  similar  standing  because  of  professional  or  sim- 
ilar duties  have  been  as  a  class  excused. 

The  jury  system  however  is  under  severe  indict- 
ment. Although  its  strong  point  is  that  it  guaran- 
tees the  person  under  arrest  a  trial  by  his  peers,  yet 
his  peers  are  often  highly  subject  to  prejudices  and 
possessed  of  narrow,  untrained  minds.  Lawyers  are 
continually  tempted  to  play  upon  the  feelings  of 
jurors.  After  the  jury  has  entered  upon  its  delib- 
erations regarding  a  decision,  it  is  subject  to  tht 
overpowering  leadership  of  one  person,  or  else  an 
unusually  obstinate  individual  may  hold  out  un- 
duly against  the  honest  judgment  of  the  other 
eleven  jurymen.  Because  of  these  facts,  trial  before 
a  judge  is  increasing  in  favor.  In  such  cases  the 
attitude  of  the  lawyer  is  likely  to  be  sane,  without 
including  "grandstand"  plays  or  emotional  appeals. 
The  person  with  a  trained,  judicial  mind  has 
marked  advantages  over  a  jury  of  untrained 
thinkers  in  the  hands  of  an  unscrupulous  lawyer. 

3.  Punishment  and  Reformation.  Three  general 
principles  have  been  followed  with  reference  to  ad- 


376  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

ministering  punishment,  namely:  retaliation,  re- 
pression, and  reformation. 

Retaliation  is  the  principle  of  giving  an  equiv- 
alent for  what  has  been  received.  If  I  am  to  return 
benefits,  why  should  I  not  return  injuries  upon  the 
same  basis  of  give  and  take.  The  desire  "to  get 
even"  is  one  of  the. deepest  in  human  nature.  An 
eye  for  an  eye  and  a  tooth  for  a  tooth,  is  the  motto 
of  retaliation. 

Repression  uses  fear.  To  intimidate  and  to 
torture  is  the  slogan  of  repression.  In  the  past  both 
the  church  and  the  state  took  upon  themselves  the 
work  of  suppressing  crime  by  measures  that  were 
designed  to  intimidate  would-be  criminals  by  hid- 
eous forms  of  torture.  This  idea  "held  humanity 
in  its  grasp  for  thousand  of  years." 

The  principle  of  reformation  as  the  basis  for 
punishment  did  not  receive  effective  support  until 
an  Italian  writer,  Beccaria,  published  his  Crimes 
and  Punishment  at  Milan  in  1764.  His  book  was 
the  sensation  of  the  day;  it  openly  challenged  re- 
pression and  with  equal  frankness  championed 
reformation.  The  book  was  translated  into  nearly 
all  modern  languages;  the  author  lived  to  see  his 
views  adopted  widely. 

Another  successful  early  advocate  of  reformation 
was  John  Howard  of  England.  In  1773,  he  was 
made  sheriff  of  Bedford  and  placed  in  charge  of  the 
jail  in  which  one  hundred  years  previously  John 


GROUP  CONTROL  377 

Bunyan  had  written  Pilgrim's  Progress.  _He  made 
a  tour  of  the  county  jails  of  England,  gathering 
evidence  concerning  typhus  fever  from  which  the 
inmates  of  jails  died  in  large  numbers. 

During  the  sixteen  years  of  his  public  service, 
almost  all  at  private  expense,  he  visited  nearly 
every  country  accessible  to  European  travellers.  He 
died  in  Russia  in  1790  of  the  plague,  while  trying 
to  find  the  cause  of  the  same  dread  disease.  On  his 
tomb  are  these  words :  He  took  an  open  but  unfre- 
quented path  to  immortality.  In  describing  his 
journeying  in  behalf  of  prison  inmates  the  poet  has 
said: 

Onward  he  moves;  disease  and  death  retire; 
While  murmuring  demons  hate  they  still  admire. 

The  ideas  of  Baccaria  and  John  Howard  concern- 
ing reformation  were  carried  forward  particularly 
in  the  United  States.  William  Penn,  who  had  been 
jailed  in  England,  also  became  interested  in  pris- 
ons; as  a  result  of  his  influence,  the  Philadelphia 
Society  for  Relieving  Distressed  Prisoners  was  or- 
ganized in  1776  and  became  the  parent  of  modern 
American  prison  associations.  In  1776,  the  Wal- 
nut Street  jail  in  Philadelphia  had  no  discipline  or 
adequate  care.  The  first  time  that  a  clergyman 
attempted  to  conduct  religious  services  in  the  yard, 
the  jailer  as  a  precaution  against  riot  and  to  insure 


378  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

the  preacher's  personal  safety,  had  a  cannon 
brought  into  the  yard  and  had  stationed  beside  it 
a  man  with  a  lighted  match. 

In  1817,  the  Pennsylvania  legislature  ordered 
the  construction  of  two  penitentiaries.  The  one  in 
Philadelphia  was  planned  by  Edward  Haviland 
and  became  the  basis  of  what  has  since  attracted 
world-wide  attention  as  the  Pennsylvania  system. 
The  penitentiary  in  Philadelphia  has  served  as  a 
model  in  many  countries.  It  has  radiating  wings, 
with  cells  next  the  outer  wall  and  the  corridor  in 
the  center,  an  arrangement  which  gives  light  in  all 
the  cells  and  some  sunshine  in  most  of  them.  The 
confining  of  prisoners  in  individual  cells,  isolated 
from  each  other,  was  a  reaction  against  the  method 
of  allowing  prisoners  of  all  degrees  of  criminality 
to  associate  promiscuously. 

Another  type  of  prison  is  represented  by  the 
Auburn  State  Prison,  established  about  1816  in 
New  York.  It  is  designed  to  separate  prisoners  by 
night  only.  The  convicts  are  employed  during  the 
day  in  large  workshops.  While  at  labor  the  pris- 
oners had  to  observe  the  rule  of  absolute  silence, 
which  was  enforced  with  exacting  sternness,  but 
which  violated  the  psychological  demands  of  the 
gregarious  impulses  unduly  and  harmfully.  Silence 
in  itself  constituted  a  separation  of  prisoners  and 
fundamental  isolation.  In  1825,  the  new  state 
prison  at  Sing  Sing  was  built  with  convict  labor, 


GROUP  CONTROL  379 

following  the  Auburn  rules;  the  achievement  sur- 
prised mankind,  for  it  had  not  been  considered 
possible  to  use  criminals  in  constructing  a  large 
public  building. 

The  Elmira  Reformatory  in  New  York  received 
its  first  prisoners  in  1876;  Z.  R.  Brockway  was  its 
initial  superintendent.  The  underlying  principles 
of  the  Elmira  system  are:  (1)  the  prisoner  can  be 
reformed.  (2)  Reformation  is  the  right  of  the  con- 
vict and  the  duty  of  the  state.  (3)  Every  prisoner 
must  be  individualized  and  given  the  special  treat- 
ment which  is  needed  to  develop  him  in  the  points 
in  which  he  is  weak.  He  needs  physical,  intellectual, 
or  moral  culture  in  combination,  but  in  varying 
proportions,  according  to  the  diagnosis  of  each  case. 
(4)  The  prisoner's  reformation  is  always  facilitated 
by  his  own  co-operation.  (5)  The  supreme  agency 
for  securing  the  desired  co-operation  on  the  pris- 
oner's part  is  power  lodged  in  the  administration  of 
the  prison  to  lengthen  or  shorten  the  duration  of 
the  offender's  term  of  imprisonment.  (6)  The  most 
important  principle  of  all  is  that  the  whole  process 
of  reformation  must  be  educational. 

The  Elmira  plan  includes  trade  training.  The 
aim  of  the  institution  is  to  send  no  man  out,  who 
is  not  prepared  to  do  something  well  enough  to  be 
independent  of  the  temptation  to  lie  or  steal. 
If  the  question  is  asked :  Where  does  the  punish- 
ment enter  in,  the  answer  is :  In  the  disciplinary 


380  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

control  which  is  unremitting  and  exacting.  The 
warden  must  be  of  the  highest  integrity,  attain- 
ments, and  consecration.  The  Elmira  plan  has  been 
widely  adopted ;  it  ranks  as  one  of  the  best. 

A  new,  successful  development  is  represented  by 
the  work  of  T.  M.  Osborne  as  warden  of  Sing  Sing, 
where  in  addition  to  advocating  penal  farms  and  a 
real  indeterminate  sentence,  he  undertook  to  en- 
courage the  prisoners  to  assume  responsibility  for 
their  conduct.  Under  his  supervision  a  welfare 
league  was  formed  among  the  prisoners.  The  idea 
of  self  government  among  prisoners  has  succeeded 
surprisingly  well  among  special  types  of  offenders, 
especially  adults  who  are  first  offenders.  Under 
certain  circumstances  prisoners  may  be  allowed  to 
make  their  own  rules  and  to  punish  violators.  The 
chief  merit  of  these  principles  is  that  prisoners 
develop  the  social  and  self  governing  spirit  that  is 
needed  in  ordinary  group  life. 

Several  specific  problems  in  the  reformation  of 
offenders  will  now  receive  analysis.  (1)  Prison  labor 
was  first  introduced  as  an  aid  to  religious  ministra- 
tions, but  it  does  not  necessarily  produce  penitence; 
it  proves  not  so  much  a  punishment  as  a  boon  to 
prisoners.  The  prevailing  motive  of  prison  labor 
systems  becomes  that  of  training  convicts  morally. 

Many  leading  forms  of  prison  labor  have  devel- 
oped. Under  the  contract  system  the  prison  author- 
ities make  arrangements  with  manufacturers  to 


GROUP  CONTROL  381 

pay  a  certain  price  a  day  per  convict  laborer  fur- 
nished. The  convict  works  under  the  direction  of 
the  agents  of  the  contractor.  The  system  ap- 
proaches an  indentured  servant  system  of  slavery. 

The  piece-price  system  is  a  modification  of  the 
contract  method.  The  outside  contractor  furnishes 
the  material  for  manufacturing  goods  and  receives 
the  finished  articles  at  an  agreed  price.  The  super- 
vision of  the  industry  is  thus  kept  in  the  hands  of 
the  prison  officials. 

The  lease  system  may  be  mentioned,  chiefly  to 
condemn  it.  Under  this  scheme,  convicts  are  leased 
to  contractors  for  a  fixed  sum  and  period.  The 
persons  so  leasing  the  prisoners  undertake  to  feed, 
clothe,  and  care  for  prisoners  and  to  maintain  dis- 
cipline. Under  such  circumstances,  the  state  gives 
up  its  function  as  public  guardian  of  private  rights ; 
it  surrenders  control  of  its  prisoners  to  irresponsible 
parties  and  to  personal  interests.  In  such  a  situation 
reformatory  measures  cannot  be  used. 

Under  the  public  or  state  account  system  the 
state  owns  the  plant,  furnishes  the  raw  materials, 
and  conducts  the  business  through  the  prison  offi- 
cials. The  profits  if  any  go  to  the  state,  in  order  to 
help  pay  the  expenses  of  care. 

The  plan  of  employing  convicts  on  public  works, 
such  as  roads,  ditches,  canals  can  be  carried  out 
with  a  limited  class  of  prisoners.  But  if  they  labor 
in  large  numbers,  experience  shows  that  generally 


382  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

they  must  be  chained  together  or  kept  in  gangs 
under  the  supervision  of  armed  men.  The  spectacle 
of  such  gangs  at  work  on  public  highways  is  de- 
grading. The  method  gives  the  prisoners  a  chance, 
however,  to  work  out-of-doors. 

The  prison  farm  affords  the  discipline  of  hard 
work,  the  advantages  of  outdoor  employment  and 
contacts  with  nature,  a  wholesome  relief  from  op- 
pressive urban  conditions,  and  the  stimulus  that 
comes  from  working  with  living  things,  plants,  and 
animals.  Municipal  farms  and  state  farms  are 
greatly  needed  as  constructive  means  of  dealing 
with  many  types  of  prisoners. 

(2)  The  indeterminate  sentence  provides  that  a 
given  prisoner  may  be  sentenced,  for  example,  for 
not  less  than  two  years  nor  more  than  ten  years. 
Until  recently  it  was  the  policy  to  prescribe  a  defi- 
nite period  of  punishment  for  each  crime  com- 
mitted. The  indeterminate  sentence  represents  the 
principle  that  the  object  of  imprisonment  is  not 
punishment  primarily  but  the  reformation  of  the 
offender  and  his  restoration  to  society  as  soon  as 
he  is  able  to  lead  a  responsible  life.  To  give  this 
principle  a  fair  chance  to  operate  it  is  necessary 
that  prisons  be  so  administered  that  the  convicts 
receive  a  chance  to  demonstrate  their  fitness  and 
"to  work  out  their  salvation  under  reformative  con- 
ditions." A  real  indeterminate  sentence  is  one  in 
which  the  offender  is  kept  under  reformatory  con- 


GROUP  CONTROL  383 

ditions  until  he  develops  a  reasonable  social  attitude 
toward  his  fellows  and  society.  It  is  a  worthy  ideal 
toward  which  to  strive. 

(3)  The  parole  system  recognizes  the  fact  that 
prisons  do  not  offer  a  good  opportunity  for  devel- 
oping a  normal  life.  Parole  is  now  combined  with 
the  indeterminate  sentence,  whereby  a  first  offen- 
der, and  certain  others,  may  be  released  from  prison 
at  the  end  of  the  minimum  sentence. 

(4)  Adult  probation  is  a  system  "not  for  letting 
people  off,  but  for  providing  a  definite  correctional 
treatment  outside  of  prison  walls."    In  many  cases 
imprisonment  as  a  punishment  carries  with  it  life- 
long disgrace  and  discouragement.     Adult  proba- 
tion is  intended  for  first  offenders  and  violators  of 
municipal  ordinances  and  minor  regulations.    The 
man  on  probation  makes  monthly  reports  to  the 
probation  officers,  pays  the  fine  against  him  in  in- 
stallments, and  makes  restitution  in  whole  or  in 
part  to  the  person  or  persons  injured  by  him. 

(5)  The  county  jail  system,  such  as  has  existed 
in  the  United  States,  has  been  frequently  charac- 
terized as  a  relic  of  barbarism.    Its  chief  advocates 
are  persons  who  are  dependent  upon  it  for  salaries 
or  fees. 

It  causes  or  intensifies  physical  deterioration.  It 
is  a  sad  sight  to  behold  strong  men  herded  in  a 
county  jail  like  cattle  in  stalls,  or  walking  the  nar- 
row confines  of  a  county  jail  "to  relieve  cramping 


384  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

limbs."  The  jails  ordinarily  do  not  have  even  a 
crude  gymnasium  in  which  trustworthy  prisoners 
can  exercise  weakening  muscles.  The  physical  con- 
dition of  the  prisoners  is  also  undermined  by  un- 
sanitary conditions,  impure  air,  dirty  bedding,  and 
dark  cells.  Darkness,  dampness,  and  dirt  combine  to 
make  the  strong,  weak,  and  the  weak  still  weaker. 

Nerve  strength  is  wasted.  With  nothing  to  in- 
terest and  occupy  the  mind  but  reflections  on  the 
past,  many  prisoners  leave  the  jail  complete  neu- 
rathenics. 

The  county  jail  has  been  rightly  termed  a  school 
of  crime.  First  offenders  and  hardened  criminals 
are  thrown  together.  Exchange  of  criminal  plans 
and  possibilities  is  the  chief  diversion ;  the  wise  and 
the  inexperienced  teach  the  beginner  the  vicious 
art  of  crime.  The  narratives  of  the  "jail  bird"  im- 
press the  plastic  mind  of  the  youthful  offender,  and 
lead  him  to  new  acts  of  crime  after  his  release.  The 
jail  tends  to  tear  down  rather  than  build  up  moral 
character.  The  "criminal  atmosphere"  in  a  jail  is 
very  serious  because  so  many  of  the  prisoners  are 
comparatively  young. 

The  jail  system  as  opposed  to  a  penal  farm 
system  reacts  sometimes  as  a  greater  punishment 
upon  the  wife  and  children  of  the  offender  than 
upon  the  offender  himself.  While  the  prisoner  is 
idling  away  a  sentence  of  thirty  days  in  jail  and 
being  fed  and  clothed  at  public  expense,  his  wife 


GROUP  CONTROL  385 

and  children  are  deprived  of  an  income  from  the 
wage-earner,  and  perhaps  are  suffering  for  lack  of 
the  necessities  of  life. 

The  county  jail  system  fails  to  reform;  it  is 
merely  a  place  for  confining  prisoners.  It  assumes 
little  responsibility  for  the  physical,  mental,  or 
moral  improvement  of  prisoners.  It  is  blind  to  its 
responsibility  to  society,  of  making  prisoners  into 
better  men  and  women  while  serving  their  sen- 
tences. 

The  county  jail  needs  to  be  supplanted  by  the 
penal  farm.  In  most  of  the  states  in  our  country 
two  or  four  state  farms  of  at  least  500  acres  each, 
located  in  different  sections  of  the  state,  represent 
a  minimum  need.  If  penal  farms  are  objected  to 
because  of  the  cost,  the  answer  can  be  made  that  a 
state  farm  can  be  operated  at  a  less  actual  cost  than 
county  jails.  After  a  thorough,  unbiased  study 
of  state  penal  farms,  Dr.  H.  J.  McClean  has  stated 
that  "there  is  not  one  farm  colony  in  the  United 
States  or  foreign  country  under  reasonably  able 
management  that  is  a  financial  burden  upon  the 
people.  There  is  not  one  but  what  is  operated  at  a 
profit  over  the  old  system.  The  argument  that  a 
correction  farm  will  involve  an  excessive  cost  will 
not  stand  the  test  of  facts  and  authority."  The 
county  jail  system  should  be  supplanted  by  a  penal 
farm  system. 


386  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

4.  Juvenile  Delinquency.  The  facts  show  that 
a  large  percentage  of  adult  prisoners  start  along 
criminal  lines  before  the  age  of  twenty-one.  It  is 
evident  that  if  juvenile  delinquency  can  be  dealt 
with  satisfactorily,  the  percentage  of  adult  crim- 
inals will  be  ultimately  decreased.  The  problems  of 
delinquency  are  therefore  far-reaching. 

Until  about  the  year  1900  in  the  United  States, 
child  offenders  were  arrested  and  if  unable  to 
furnish  bail  were  placed  in  the  regular  cells  of  police 
stations.  If  convicted,  they  were  fined,  and  then 
sent  to  the  city  jail  or  prison  to  "lay  out"  their  fine 
at  a  rate,  for  example,  of  fifty  cents  a  day. 

Then  came  a  turning  point  in  the  treatment  of 
adolescent  offenders;  new  principles  were  rec- 
ognized. (1)  The  juvenile  offender  is  being  treated 
as  a  ward  of  the  court ;  he  is  no  longer  regarded  as 
an  accused  or  convicted  criminal.  The  system  of 
fines  has  been  abolished.  (2)  Separate  courts  have 
been  established  for  children's  cases ;  they  are  un- 
like the  regular  court  chambers;  they  resemble  a 
private  conference  room.  Women  acting  as  referees 
or  judges  in  girls'  cases  have  been  markedly  suc- 
cessful. 

(3)  The  system  of  probation  has  been  inaugu- 
rated, whereby  children  are  returned  to  their  homes 
or  to  the  care  of  responsible  parties  and  kept  there 
under  the  supervision  of  probation  officers.  The 
child  is  thus  not  treated  as  an  isolated  unit  but  as 


GROUP  CONTROL  387 

a  member  of  family  and  neighborhood  groups.  The 
juvenile  probation  system  is  intended  for  first  of- 
fenders and  children  guilty  of  minor  offences.  It 
has  broken  down  in  many  instances,  due  to  a  variety 
of  circumstances. 

It  sometimes  has  become  customary  to  place  on 
probation  adolescents  who  are  "repeaters,"  that  is, 
who  are  offenders  for  two,  three,  or  more  times. 
This  practice  constitutes  undue  leniency,  which  is 
taken  advantage  of  by  evil-minded  youths.  In  con- 
sequence the  police  officers  lose  interest  in  arresting 
youthful  culprits  who  steal  automobiles  or  burglar- 
ize houses;  the  police  from  their  point  of  view 
state  that  it  does  no  good  to  arrest  boys,  for  in  a  few 
days  they  will  be  at  liberty  again,  ready  to  commit 
new  offenses.  In  reply  the  probation  officers  point 
out  that  at  present  the  alternative  is  the  worse  pro- 
cedure of  sending  adolescent  boys  into  city  jails  to 
companion  idly  with  mature  criminals  of  the  most 
hardened  types,  and  to  come  out  anti-social  and  de- 
praved, far  more  dangerous  to  society  than  under 
the  alternative  which  is  practiced. 

The  whole  method  of  treatment  of  delinquents 
today  centers  in  the  juvenile  court.  It  has  recently 
been  urged  that  a  large  percentage  of  juvenile  court 
cases  do  not  represent  children's  guilt  but  parental 
neglect  and  guilt ;  hence  not  the  child  but  the  parent 
should  be  brought  into  court.  Thus  the  domestic 
relations  court  could  handle  an  increasing  percent- 


388  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

age  of  the  cases  that  now  go  to  the  children's  court. 

Further,  it  is  contended  that  the  public  schools 
should  segregate  all  mentally  defective  adolescents 
and  keep  them  under  institutional  supervision 
rather  than  allow  them  as  at  present  to  be  released 
from  school  supervision  at  fourteen  or  fifteen  years 
of  age  and  to  drift  into  delinquency.  If  the  public 
schools  would  adequately  classify  pupils  by  mental 
tests  and  keep  the  mentally  deficient  under  super- 
vision, along  with  the  incorrigibles,  until  such  time 
as  they  show  themselves  capable  of  self  control 
under  urban  conditions,  delinquency  would  be  cut 
down  perhaps  thirty  per  cent.  Thus  the  school 
normally  should  assume  responsibility  for  a  per- 
centage of  the  cases  that  now  come  into  the  juve- 
nile court. 

The  juvenile  court  however  is  serving  useful  pur- 
poses, not  the  least  of  which  is  that  it  is  calling  at- 
tention to  conditions  which  are  creating  a  rising 
tide  of  delinquency.  Even  after  children's  cases  in 
which  parents  are  the  chief  culprits  are  cared  for  in 
domestic  relations  courts,  and  after  the  schools  per- 
form their  full  function  in  preventing  delinquency 
there  will  still  be  need  for  juvenile  courts. 

After  making  a  study  of  2,121  cases  of  delin- 
quency the  present  writer  suggests  the  following 
analysis  of  the  causes  of  delinquency.  (1)  The 
broken  up  or  unfit  home  is  almost  a  constant  and 
ever  recurring  circumstance.  The  inadequate  home 


GROUP  CONTROL  389 

may  be  divided  into  at  least  seven  more  or  less  dis- 
tinct types :  the  home  broken  by  death ;  the  home 
entered  by  prolonged  illness,  or  chronic  poverty; 
the  home  rent  by  separation  or  divorce;  the  im- 
migrant home  in  which  the  parents  in  trying  to 
become  adjusted  to  American  city  conditions  find 
that  they  have  lost  control  over  the  children;  the 
home  in  which  the  parents  are  shiftless ;  the  home 
in  which  the  parents  are  too  busy  with  their  eco- 
nomic interests  or  club  activities  to  give  adequate 
direction  to  the  children;  and  the  home  in  which 
wealth  and  luxury  have  made  the  children  irre- 
sponsible group  members. 

(2)  The  second  outstanding  set  of  circumstances 
connected  with  delinquency  points  to  certain  weak- 
nesses in  the  public  schools.  The  latter  are  expected 
to  teach  self  control  in  the  children  who  come  under 
school  supervision  for  eight  or  more  years.     If  a 
child  has  not  acquired  self  control  under  this  tute- 
lage, the  school  has  in  a  measure  failed.    What  does 
it  profit  a  boy  if  he  acquire  knowledge  but  loses  or 
does  not  acquire  personal  control.     The  need  for 
segregating  the  mentally  defective  and  caring  for 
them  under  school  supervision  as  long  as  they  do 
not  possess  a  reasonable  degree  of  self  control  would 
cut  down  the  delinquency  rate. 

(3)  General  civic  neglect  and    lack   of   public 
supervision  must  be  cited  as  a  third  cause.    Boys 
and  girls  are  released  from  the  public  school  system 


390  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

at  the  age  of  fourteen  or  fifteen  into  complex  social 
environments.  If  they  come  from  broken  up  homes 
or  homes  where  inadequate  control  prevails  then 
they  are  practically  the  community's  wards.  But 
if  the  community  provides  no  supervision,  the  result 
may  be  delinquency.  The  presence  of  harmful 
amusements  operated  by  commercial  interests  is 
another  illustration  of  civic  neglect  of  the  common 
welfare.  Civic  neglect  also  refers  to  the  social  in- 
justice which  extensively  prevents  poverty. 

(4)  The  absence  of  a  genuinely  reverent  religious 
attitude  is  a  fundamental  cause  of  delinquency. 
Genuine  religion  produces  self  control  with  refer- 
ence to  many  of  the  temptations  of  which  vice  is  the 
promoter.  An  attitude  which  gives  a  balanced  self 
control  to  the  individual,  wholesomeness  in  the 
family  life,  and  a  deep  and  unselfish  social  interest 
helps  to  save  boys  and  girls  from  delinquency  and 
tends  to  hold  them  true  to  sane  pathways. 

Throughout  the  discussion  in  this  chapter  as  well 
as  in  the  two  preceding  chapters,  the  ever-important 
although  not  evident  question  is  this :  How  much 
and  what  types  of  control  shall  the  group  exercise 
over  its  members?  If  too  much  control  obtains, 
individual  growth  will  be  stifled;  if  too  little  con- 
trol, some  individuals  will  take  advantage  of  their 
fellow  individuals.  If  control  is  exercised  in  in- 
direct ways,  individuals  become  resentful.  Under 
some  circumstances  group  control  unduly  re- 


GROUP  CONTROL  391 

presses  certain  individuals  while  affording  others 
special  advantages.  The  question,  rising  always 
anew,  becomes  this :  How  shall  the  group  control  its 
members  so  that  each  shall  have  the  fullest  stimu- 
lation and  opportunity  for  self  expression,  self  con- 
trol, and  group  activity  and  contribution. 


392  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 


PROBLEMS 

1.  Does  it  ever  pay  to  be  anti-social? 

2.  Is  it  more  difficult  to  be  social  or  anti-social? 

3.  Explain  the  statement  that  "societies  have  the  criminals 

they  deserve." 

4.  Why  are  women  less  criminal  than  men? 

5.  What  is  criminology? 

6.  Are  there  "born  criminals?" 

7.  Write  out  five  questions  for  a  civil  service  examination 

for  policemen. 

8.  Explain:    Labor  has  a  reformatory  influence. 

9.  Why  is  time  usually  necessary  for  the  reformatory  proc- 

ess to  take  place? 

10.  Why  does  "making  believe"  that  one  has  developed  self 

control  for  a  length  of  time  tend  to  bring  about  refor- 
mation ? 

11.  Distinguish  between  parole  and  probation. 

12.  Why  does  the  barbaric  jail  system  exist  so  extensively? 

13.  What  is  the  main  argument  for  self  government  student 

organizations  ? 

14.  Why  must  homes  bear  the  chief  responsibility  for  de- 

linquency? 


CHAPTER  XX 

GROUP  PROGRESS  THROUGH 
SOCIALIZED  THINKING 


THERE  HAS  BEEN  a  large  amount  of  speculation 
about  the  nature  of  society  and  social  progress,  in 
fact,  every  person  has  his  opinions  which  sometimes 
he  proclaims  as  final  truth ;  but  it  is  only  in  recent 
years  that  actual  studies  of  social  situations  have 
been  made  in  an  accurate,  extensive,  and  scientific 
manner.  The  two  methods  of  scientific  approach 
in  studying  group  phenomena  that  are  yielding 
positive  results  are  represented  by  social  surveys 
and  investigations  and  social  psychological  anal- 
yses. 

1.  Social  Surveys  and  Research.  In  the  United 
States,  the  Pittsburg  Survey  in  1907-1908  was  the 
pioneer  of  the  current  social  survey  movement. 
Social  surveys  however  had  their  origin  centuries 
ago.  Piece-meal  and  isolated  work  in  collecting 
social  data  may  be  found  as  early  perhaps  as  3000 
B.C.  when,  according  to  Herodotus,  data  were 
collected  concerning  the  population  and  wealth  of 
Egypt.  William  the  Conqueror  in  England  in  the 
middle  of  the  eleventh  century  prepared  the  Domes- 
day Book,  which  mentions  the  names  of  landlords, 


394  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

treats  of  the  customs  of  the  realm,  describes  the 
towns  and  cities,  surveys  the  occupations,  and  gives 
a  census  of  the  people  together  with  references  to 
their  economic  and  social  situations. 

In  modern  times,  Frederick  William  I  of  Prussia 
instituted  a  systematic  collection  of  facts  relating 
to  population,  occupations,  and  the  like.  The  idea 
was  developed  further  by  Frederick  the  Great,  who 
was  instrumental  in  developing  a  system  for  the 
gathering  of  facts  relative  to  nationality,  age, 
deaths,  agriculture,  and  manufacture.  In  1790  the 
United  States  instituted  the  modern  census,  which 
with  the  succeeding  decades  has  become  very  ex- 
tensive. 

More  intensive  social  studies  were  begun  with 
the  work  of  Captain  John  Graunt  of  London,  who 
made  the  first  recorded  analytical  study  in  the  field 
of  vital  statistics,  that  is,  regarding  birth  rates, 
death  rates,  and  sometimes  marriage  rates.  Statis- 
tical studies  of  vital  human  data  have  been  fur- 
thered greatly  by  the  development  of  life  insurance. 
Quetelet,  a  Belgian  astronomer  and  statistician,  in- 
cluded in  his  investigations  certain  social,  moral, 
as  well  as  physical  characteristics  of  man,  and  ar- 
rived at  conclusions  which  indicated  that  all  types 
of  human  acts,  especially  crime,  suicides,  and  ac- 
cidents occur  with  marked  regularity.  Ernst  Engel, 
in  Prussia  in  the  middle  of  the  last  century,  made 
social  studies,  such  as  those  showing  the  relation  of 


GROUP  PROGRESS  395 

an  increase  in  wages  to  increase  in  expenditures 
of  a  family  for  food,  clothing,  rent,  and  other  items. 
In  England  the  studies  of  Charles  Booth,  published 
in  the  closing  decade  of  the  last  century  gave  the 
world  a  storehouse  of  social  facts  about  the  life 
and  labor  of  the  people  of  London. 

In  the  United  States  since  the  publication  of  the 
results  of  the  Pittsburg  Survey  in  six  volumes,  there 
have  developed  in  nearly  all  enterprising  communi- 
ties demands  for  social  surveys  of  one  kind  or  an- 
other. These  have  been  either  general  or  special  in 
character.  The  general  survey  covers  all  the  lead- 
ing social  conditions  in  a  specific  city,  town,  or 
rural  district.  A  general  survey  includes  social 
elements,  such  as:  housing,  health,  amusements 
and  recreation,  industry,  immigration,  schools, 
newspapers,  churches,  delinquency  and  penal  in- 
stitutions, and  social  welfare  agencies. 

Special  social  surveys  are  usually  confined  to 
some  one  specific  problem,  such  as  housing,  amuse- 
ments, public  health,  or  delinquency.  It  is  possible 
for  a  group  of  public  minded  citizens  to  conduct  a 
special  social  survey  to  good  advantage,  whereas 
such  a  group  would  be  unable  to  undertake  a  com- 
plete general  survey. 

The  literature  on  the  subject  of  social  surveys 
is  divided  into  two  classes :  (a)  manuals,  explaining 
how  to  conduct  surveys;  and  (b)  the  results  of  act- 
ual surveys.  The  latter  type  of  documents  has 


396  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

become  extensive  in  scope  and  volume.  It  consti- 
tutes a  mine  of  information  for  sociological  anal- 
ysis. 

A  social  survey,  which  may  be  defined  as  a  collect- 
ing of  data  concerning  the  living  conditions  in 
whole  or  part  of  the  people  of  a  given  community, 
is  made  for  the  same  general  purpose  that  a  busi- 
ness house  takes  an  inventory  of  its  affairs  at  stated 
intervals.  In  the  latter  case  the  factors  leading  to 
losses  can  be  discovered  and  prevented,  and  factors 
leading  to  gains  can  be  noted  and  emphasized.  In 
much  the  same  way  a  community  can  discover  its 
disintegrating  factors  and  work  out  plans  of  pre- 
vention and  discover  how  to  increase  the  efficiency 
of  the  operation  of  its  constructive  factors.  More 
important  still,  upon  the  basis  of  extensive  social 
data,  sound  and  far-reaching  principles  of  social 
advance  can  be  determined. 

A  wise  community  will  plan  to  inventory  itself 
not  once,  but  at  stated  intervals,  perhaps  of  three 
or  five  years.  By  so  doing  a  community  can  de- 
termine its  development  tendencies  and  the  nature 
of  its  underlying  processes.  At  this  point  the  need 
for  community  case  histories  is  evident.  A  survey 
refers  chiefly  to  the  present;  a  community  case 
history  deals  with  the  past  as  well,  and  diagnoses 
evolutionary  factors.  Community  case  histories 
would  provide  adequate  data  for  creating  a  pro- 
cedure of  true  community  improvement. 


GROUP  PROGRESS  397 

Social  investigations  and  research  are  similar  to 
surveys  except  that  they  are  far  more  intensive. 
A  particular  problem,  such  as  the  causes  of  delin- 
quency among  adolescents,  the  relation  of  inade- 
quate housing  to  tuberculosis,  the  traits  of  a  given 
immigrant  people,  or  the  analysis  of  some  sociolog- 
ical concept,  illustrates  the  nature  of  social,  or  more 
particularly,  of  sociological  research. 

The  last  mentioned  topic  also  falls  within  the 
field  of  social  psychological  approach  by  which  it 
has  been  possible  for  investigators  to  penetrate  the 
depths  of  the  social  process,  and  discover  new  prin- 
ciples of  group  life  and  development  of  far-reaching 
and  ever-increasing  value.  This  field  of  sociological 
endeavor  has  already  produced  many  concepts  or 
tools  which  enable  their  users  to  go  almost  any- 
where in  exploring  the  hidden  recesses  of  social  pro- 
cesses. Some  of  these  processes  have  been  intro- 
duced to  the  student  in  Chapter  V ;  upon  the  basis 
of  them  this  book  has  been  constructed. 

2.  Social  Work  and  Reform.  Another  method 
of  attack  upon  group  phenomena  is  represented  by 
social  work.  Within  recent  years  this  new  field  of 
social  endeavors  has  been  developing  until  it  has 
now  achieved  the  rank  of  a  profession.  A  report  as 
early  as  1916  showed  at  that  time  that  there  were 
about  4000  paid  social  workers  in  New  York  City 
alone,  1200  of  whom  were  men;  that  there  were  in 


398  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

New  York  City  twenty-one  organizations  paying 
salaries  of  $5,000  or  more  a  year  to  social  workers, 
and  that  salaries  ranged  up  to  $10,000  or  more  a 
year  to  social  workers. 

Social  work  as  a  profession  is  emerging  from  its 
period  of  youth,  a  period  similar  to  that  of  the  legal 
profession  when  ambitious  young  men  "read  law" 
in  offices  and  shunned  the  newly  organized  law 
schools.  Schools  for  training  social  workers  have 
developed  in  recent  years  until  now  training  facili- 
ties may  be  found  in  nearly  all  the  larger  colleges 
and  universities. 

Social  work  may  be  divided  into  group  and  case 
work.  In  its  simpler  forms  social  group  work  refers 
to  conducting  or  directing  clubs  and  classes  in  so- 
cial settlements,  recreation  centers,  or  school  cen- 
ters, where  large  numbers  of  children  gather  to- 
gether after  school  hours.  Then  there  are  institu- 
tions, such  as  children's  hospitals  and  orphans' 
homes,  where  children  live  under  constant  super- 
vision, but  who  because  of  the  standardization  of 
such  supervision  need  the  special  leadership  atten- 
tion that  can  be  given  by  group  workers.  Group 
work  with  children  who  come  to  settlements  and 
other  social  and  educational  centers  presents  a 
greater  variety  of  opportunities  and  problems  than 
do  institutional  children.  Social  group  work  is  of 
two  kinds:  (1)  leadership  activities,  and  (2)  in- 
vestigational  work,  which  in  turn  may  be  social 


GROUP  PROGRESS  399 

psychological  or  sociological. 

The  person  who  essays  to  act  as  a  leader  of  a 
group  of  lively  settlement  boys  or  girls  must  under- 
stand both  the  psychology  of  adolescence  and  of 
leadership,  and  also  the  sociology  of  social  settle- 
ment neighborhoods.  In  the  case  of  the  adult 
classes  or  groups,  the  group  worker  usually  becomes 
a  teacher  or  a  director  of  organized  group  activities. 

After  the  group  leader  has  established  relation- 
ships of  good  will  and  confidence  with  the  group 
members,  he  is  in  a  position  to  make  an  analysis 
either  of  their  psychological  traits  or  of  their  social 
situations.  Through  the  co-operation  of  the  group 
members,  the  leader  may  direct  a  survey  of  a  neigh- 
borhood, making  it  a  genuine  social  survey  and 
bringing  about  permanent  neighborhood  improve- 
ments. 

Social  case  work  refers  to  helping  needy  individ- 
uals or  families  in  becoming  self-sustaining  as  far 
as  possible.  Many  families  through  a  sudden  and 
serious  turn  of  circumstances  such  as  economic  re- 
verses, the  desertion  of  the  wage-earner,  or  death, 
are  thrown  upon  the  community  for  aid.  The  case 
worker  renders  temporary  financial  help  and  then 
endeavors  to  get  the  individual  or  family  upon  a 
self-sustaining  basis  in  the  best  way. 

Social  work  involves  a  knowledge  of  the  group 
basis  of  all  individual  life.  In  order  to  understand 
thoroughly  a  person  in  need,  the  social  worker  must 


400  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

know  the  groups  and  the  group  traditions  which 
have  helped  to  develop  him.  One  of  the  chief  activ- 
ities of  the  social  worker  is  to  mend  broken  family 
groups,  putting  them  back  into  society  as  function- 
ing units  as  far  as  possible. 

Social  work  involves  making  diagnosis  of  human 
predicaments  pretty  much  as  a  physican  diagnoses 
a  case  of  sickness.  In  general  the  needy  persons 
fall  into  three  main  classes :  the  physically  handi- 
capped, such  as  the  blind,  crippled,  and  physicially 
sick;  the  mentally  handicapped,  such  as  the  men- 
tally defective  or  unbalanced,  and  neurasthenics ; 
and  the  socially  handicapped,  the  largest  group  of 
all,  including  the  fatherless  family,  the  neglected  or 
dependent  child,  the  delinquent  child,  the  homeless 
aged,  the  alcoholic  or  drug  addict,  or  the  immi- 
grant group  which  has  not  become  assimilated. 

The  main  forms  of  social  field  work  give  students 
in  sociology  one  of  the  best  possible  introductions 
to  an  understanding  of  the  problems  of  societary 
life.  The  upper  division  or  graduate  student  of 
sociology  in  colleges  who  supplements  his  class- 
room exercises  with  social  field  work  places  him- 
self in  a  strategic  position  with  reference  to  analyz- 
ing what  is  actually  taking  place  in  human  society. 
Classroom  discussion  by  itself  sometimes  becomes 
remote  from  real  life,  but  when  it  is  conducted  with 
reference  to  actual  situations  that  are  developing 
in  the  community  or  city,  it  takes  on  all  the  reality 


GROUP  PROGRESS  401 

of  life  itself.  Such  opportunities  for  college  students 
are  uncommon;  almost  all  college  students  are 
compelled  to  study  books  rather  than  life.  Training 
courses  in  social  work,  however,  afford  a  combi- 
nation of  sociological  discussion  and  social  work 
activity  which  is  unusually  stimulating  and  condu- 
cive to  thoughtful  development. 

Social  reform  is  different  from  social  work  in 
that  it  represents  mass  procedure.  It  uses  a  tool, 
such  as  social  legislation,  for  changing  the  stand- 
ards of  an  entire  city,  state,  or  nation,  rather  than 
the  standards  of  families  or  of  individuals  as  in  case 
work.  Case  work  is  individual,  particularistic,  and 
minute  in  character ;  social  reform  deals  with  entire 
groups,  using  objective,  compulsory  methods.  Social 
reform  rests  for  its  success  upon  the  support  of  pub- 
lic opinion.  It  is  only  when  a  strong  public  opin- 
ion supports  a  measure  that  it  can  transform  a 
whole  group. 

Social  reform  is  general,  unmindful  of  individual 
cases ;  case  work  affords  warm  human  contacts.  By 
seeing  life  from  the  standpoint  of  its  general  needs, 
social  reformers  are  able  to  catch  the  meaning  of 
large  social  needs  and  tendencies ;  the  case  worker 
knows  life  in  its  individual  aspects  and  hence  is  an 
authority  whom  both  the  social  reformer  and  the 
sociologist  need  to  consult  frequently.  The  social 
reformer  lifts  his  eyes  to  the  future ;  the  case  worker 
has  his  eyes  bent  on  the  present,  on  today's  partic- 


402  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

ular  need  and  opportunity.  Together,  hand  in  hand, 
each  may  supply  what  the  other  lacks,  and  con- 
tribute to  group  control  a  multiplied  common  sense. 
e  case  worker  at  his  best  is  the  investigator,  ren- 
dering aid  and  also  gathering  social  data  from 
which  sociological  principles  may  be  drawn.  The 
social  reformer  at  his  best  is  putting  into  group 
operation  the  principles  which  have  stood  the  test 
of  sociological  standards. 

3.  Social  Telesis.  Upon  the  basis  of  adequate 
and  well  interpreted  facts,  any  community  which 
is  sufficiently  interested  to  do  so,  may  enter  upon 
a  definite  program  of  directing  its  own  purposes 
toward  constructive  ends.  Social  telesis  refers  to 
the  process  whereby  groups  can  accelerate  their 
own  development  through  prevision.  One  of  the*\ 
goals  of  social  telesis  is  that  of  securing  the  com- ) 
plete  participation  of  every  individual  in  effective/ 
ways  in  the  life  of  the  group  and  of  getting  the 
group  to  work  toward  the  largest  feasible  expansion 
of  the  lives  of  all  the  individuals  in  the  group.  There 
are  purposes  which  may  be  thought  of  as  represent- 
ing the  main  aims  of  a  community  that  is  governed 
by  the  principle  of  social  telesis ;  these  will  now  be 
stated. 

(1)  The  conservation  of  natural  resources  and 
utilization  of  these  for  the  benefit  of  all,  not  of  a 
shrewd  few  is  an  elemental  aim  of  social  telesis.  To 


GROUP  PROGRESS  403 

maintain  a  system  of  private  ownership  of  natural 
resources  and  yet  not  permit  this  ownership  to  ex- 
ercise special  privilege,  is  probably  fundamental  to 
an  ideal  society. 

(2)  A  sound  physical  and  mental  heredity  is  a 
characteristic  of  the  ideal    society  which     social 
telesis  postulates.     The    degenerate    offspring    of 
feeble-minded  or  alcoholic  parents  come  into  the 
world  with  a  just  grievance  against  society;  they 
hold  back  group  development.  Every  child,  or  near- 
ly every  one,  in  an  ideal  group  life  will  be  well  born. 

(3)  An   environment   favorable   to  health  is  a 
third  essential  in  the  society  in  which  social  telesis 
governs.     Inadequate  housing,  lack  of  sanitation, 
and  bacterial  diseases  will  have  no  place  in  a  per- 
fected and  social  group.  Disintegrating  amusements 
and  the  nerve-wrecking  pace  of  urban  life  will  be 
overcome. 

(4)  A  sound  family  life  and  well  controlled  child- 
hood are  closely  related  and  fundamental  phases  of 
an  ideal  social  group.    Apparently  nothing  can  take 
the  place  of  wholesome  family  life.    Children  need 
to  be  protected  from  the  neglect  of  very  poor  and 
very  rich  parents — the  former  not  being  able  or 
knowing  how  to  care  properly  for  children  and  the 
latter  often  being  too  lenient  and  spoiling  their  chil- 
dren with  luxuries  and  money.     Children  need  to 
be  safeguarded  from  exploitation  by  employment 
for  wages  in  the  years  of  childhood  and  early  ado- 


404  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

lescence;  they  need  a  full-orbed  chance  to  become 
socially  educated. 

(5)  A  working  period,  marked  by  creative  effort, 
is  to  be  coveted  for  both  men  and  women.  The  con- 
ditions of  industry  need  to  be  developed  in  such 
ways  that  workers  shall  find  their  greatest  enjoy- 
ments in  life  in  their  work  and  not  be  obliged  to 
watch  the  clock  for  the  end  of  the  day  to  come  or 
to  look  forward  to  the  pay  day,  as  the  time  when 
they  can  begin  to  enjoy  themselves.  Industry  should 
be  so  controlled  that  workers  will  not  be  worn  out 
and  thrown  upon  the  scrap  heap  in  middle  life. 

Industry  and  business  are  in  process  of  being 
organized  democratically,  that  is,  on  bases  which 
include  the  representation  or  all  three  factors  which 
are  essential  to  the  ongoing  of  industrial  and  bus- 
iness enterprises,  namely,  labor,  capital,  and  the 
public.  The  procedure  makes  possible  the  contin- 
uance of  the  private  property  principle,  forestalling 
the  necessity  of  revolutionary  measures.  Each  of 
the  three  parties  in  industrial  and  business  life  are 
slowly  becoming  socialized  in  attitudes,  that  is,  be- 
ing willing  or  being  forced  to  view  its  own  interests 
in  the  light  of  the  welfare  of  the  other  two  constit- 
uents. 

A  general  system  of  insurance  against  all  the 
contingencies  which  now  cause  dependency  or  sud- 
den lowering  of  the  standard  of  living  is  vital.  Such 
a  system  would  include  compulsory  insurance 


GROUP  PROGRESS  405 

against  death,  accident,  sickness,  and  old  age,  but 
it  must  not  be  construed  as  a  substitute  for  those 
measures  which  would  guarantee  the  workers  eco- 
nomic justice  and  industrial  democracy. 

In  the  list  of  industrial  essentials  there  should 
be  set  forth  a  standard  of  living  that  includes  an 
income  sufficient  to  provide  the  necessities  of  phys- 
ical and  mental  living,  such  as  proper  nourishment, 
reasonable  recreation,  protection  from  cold,  heat, 
rain,  and  snow,  darkness,  overcrowding,  and  inde- 
cency. The  minimum  standard  also  includes  some 
of  the  comforts  or  amenities  of  life. 

(6)  Instead  of  a  prevailing  attitude  of  "What 
can  I  get  out  of  the  government,"  a  socialized  atti- 
tude of  "What  can  I  do  for  the  government"  is  a 
normal  goal  of  social  telesis.    Then  there  is  the  at- 
tainment of  ethical  or  personal  control  standards 
which  involve  the  maintenance  by  the  individual  of 
a  social  attitude  in  all  his  dealings    with    all    his 
fellows. 

(7)  Social  telesis  aims  to  secure  a  widespread 
and  preponderant  appreciation  of  music,  painting, 
sculpture,  poetry,  and  the  other  arts.    Art  sets  pat- 
terns of  rhythm,  order,    balance,    and    movement 
which  are  essential  to  a  well  rounded  personal  and 
group  life. 

(8)  Another  normal  goal  of  social  telesis  is  a  sys- 
tem of  vocational  training,  industrial,  commercial, 
and  domestic,  which  would  train  individuals  first 


406  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

of  all  for  good  parenthood,  good  citizenship,  and 
socialized  behavior;  and  which  would  train  all  to 
make  an  independent  living  but  in  productive  ways, 
not  denying  a  full  opportunity  to  any  other  individ- 
ual. 

(9)  The  prevention  of  delinquency,  criminality, 
pauperism,  and  other  pathological  states  by  scien- 
tific methods  is  another  aim  of  social  telesis.    De- 
linquency and  criminality  could  be  largely  over- 
come by  proper  training  in  personal  control  through 
the  home,  play,  school,  and  similar  group  activities. 
A  scientific  procedure  could  help  families  and  in- 
dividuals who  are  out  of  social  adjustment  to  be- 
come permanently  efficient;  poverty,  except  as  an 
occasional  phenomenon,  could  be  eliminated  by  so- 
cial telesis. 

(10)  The  last  condition  to  be  mentioned  as  an 
essential  phase  of  social  telesis  is  a  type  of  religious 
control  which  stimulates  the  finest  development  of 
the  Jiighest  spiritual  nature  of  human  beings.    As 
the  true  spiritual  self  is  an  enlarged  social  self,  pro- 
vision must  be  made  for  the  growth  of  broad  and 
deep  religious  influences.     In  an  evolving  human 
society,  the  expanding,  elevating,  and  purifying  in- 
fluence of  religion  is  needed. 

Social  telesis  or  purposefulness  will  multiply  the 
usefulness  of  any  group.  It  will  perfect  the  relation- 
ships between  individuals,  between  individuals  and 
groups,  and  between  groups  and  groups;  in  the 


GROUP  PROGRESS  407 

nieantime  it  will  set  the  center  of  individual  struggle 
outside  the  individual,  thus  enabling  personality  to 
rise  to  its  fullest  possible  fruition  in  socialized  be- 
havior. 


PROBLEMS 

1.  What  is  the  difference  between  a  census  and  a  social 

survey? 

2.  How  would   you   go   about   it   to  get   a    social   survey 

started? 

3.  Contrast  a  social  survey  and  a  community  case  history. 

4.  What  is  the  main  value  in  social  research? 

5.  What  social    reforms    are   most   needed    in   your   com- 

munity? 

6.  What  are  the  main  values  in  social  work  as  a  profession? 

7.  How  is  social  work  related  to  sociology? 

8.  What  personal  qualifications  must  a  social  worker  pos- 

sess?  . 

9.  What  similarity  in  method  is  there  between  social  work 

and  practicing  medicine? 

10.  Give  a  new  illustration  of  social  telesis. 

11.  How  are  social  data  related  to  social  telesis? 

12.  How  is  social  telesis  related  to  social  control? 


CHAPTER  XXI 

GROUP  PROGRESS  THROUGH 
SOCIALIZED  THINKING 

(  continued) 

4.  The  Teaching  of  Sociology.  In  recent  years 
sociology  has  become  a  teaching  subject.  Because 
other  and  standard  subjects  stressed  the  principles 
of  individual  pecuniary  success  out  of  all  propor- 
tion to  the  principles  of  social  welfare,  even  making 
it  possible  for  individuals  to  prey  upon  persons  less 
educated  and  privileged,  the  necessity  for  some  line 
of  study  which  should  view  life  from  the  group  angle 
became  urgent.  Hence  sociology  has  been  accorded 
an  important  place  in  the  curricula  of  the  schools 
of  higher  learning.  The  teaching  of  sociology  is 
becoming  widely  diversified. 

(1)  There  is  the  original  territory  of  sociology 
teaching,  namely,  the  advanced  fields  of  post-grad- 
uate college  and  university  work.  For  many  decades 
courses  in  social  philosophy  and  general  sociology 
have  been  offered  advanced    classes    of  students; 
these  courses  have  been  highly  specialized  and  con- 
ducted for  advanced  students,  with  little  uniformity 
regarding  methods  among  different  instructors. 

(2)  In  recent  years  the  number  of  specialized 


GROUP  PROGRESS  409 

undergraduate  college  courses  in  sociology,  such  as 
courses  dealing  with  poverty,  delinquency,  the 
family,  eugenics,  has  increased  with  amazing  rapid- 
ity. The  college  is  rare  indeed  which  has  no  course 
in  sociology — some  offering  ten,  or  twenty,  and 
even  fifty  or  sixty  courses,  where  sociology  has 
been  developed  thoroughly.  The  organization  of 
departments  of  sociology  is  taking  place  more  slow- 
ly, a  fact  which  does  not  reflect  unfavorably  upon 
sociology,  but  simply  shows  the  conservatism  of  the 
departments  in  which  sociology  courses  arise. 

(3)  The  teaching  of  an  introductory  course  in 
college  sociology,  generally  known  as  sociology  I, 
has  sometimes  been  made  a  course  in  anthropology, 
or  the  study  of  the  origin  of  man ;  agam  it  fias~BeerT 
a  course  in  social  economics,  beginning  with  an  eco- 
nomics background ;  it  is  given  in  some  institutions 
largely  as  a  course  injsocial  problems  or  in  social 
institutions;  but  the  mostj^cej^tendency  is  to 
give  the  course  a  psyxhglQgicaJ^applroach  and  treat 
it  as  a  studyjof-the.  Iaws^j0f^roug_life.  Only  recently 
has  the  introductory  course  in  sociology  been  given 
its  correct  foundation  in  social  psychology. 

It  is  this  latter  type  of  introductory  course  in 
sociology  which  is  being  recognized  in  normal 
schools  as  being  fundamental  to  the  training  of 
public  school  teachers.  The  teacher  needs,  not 
only  to  know  her  subject,  her  pupils,  but  also  the 
nature  of  the  group  life  of  which  her  pupils  are  a 


410  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

product  and  also  to  know  the  nature  of  the  group 
life  for  which  she  is  fitting  her  pupils  to  become  par- 
ticipating members.  The  teacher  does  not  primarily 
teach  a  child  a  certain  subject;  she  teaches  children 
subjects  so  that  they  may  succeed  in  group  life,  not 
selfishly,  but  for  the  good  of  other  persons  and 
human  groups.  Only  so,  can  an  individual  succeed 
in  attaining  his  highest  possibilities,  and  by  teach- 
ing only  in  this  way  can  the  teacher  become  truly 
successful.  Teaching  is  a  process  of  fitting  pupils 
to  become  unselfish  public  servants,  chiefly  in  their 
occupational  and  professional  callings  and  in  their 
daily  interactions  with  their  fellows. 

(4)  The  high  school  is  slowly  being  recognized 
as  a  field  for  teaching  sociology.    The  presence  of 
other  studies  in  an  already  overcrowded  curricu- 
lum has   hindered  the  introduction  of  sociology 
courses,  but  sooner  or  later  the  need  of  high  school 
students,  the  majority  of  whom  do  not  go  to  college, 
for  sociology  courses  will  be  recognized  and  met. 
High  school  students,  being  at  an  age  where  individ- 
uality asserts  itself,  are  in  special  need  of  studies 
with  a  group  emphasis. 

(5)  Social  studies  are  being  introduced  in  the 
grades,  especially  in  the  upper  grades.    The  need 
for  social  studies  in  the  lower  grades  is  also  keen. 
The  teaching  of  them  in  these  grades  is  no  more 
difficult  than  the  teaching  of  elementary  mathe- 
matics or  any  other  subject;  the  technique  of  teach- 


GROUP  PROGRESS  411 

ing  them  however  is  not  yet  developed.  The  pre- 
sentation of  social  ideas  and  group  responsibility, 
normally  begun  in  the  home  during  the  first  year 
of  the  child's  life,  should  be  furthered  in  an  organ- 
ized way  by  the  school  when  it  is  entered  by  the 
child  at  the  age  of  five  or  six  years. 

By  teaching  sociology,  the  leaven  of  socialized 
thinking  can  work  out  and  through  all  societary 
life.  In  consequence,  a  better  type  of  group  control 
can  develop,  social  telesis  can  be  furthered,  and  a 
v  new  social,  industrial,  political,  and  religious  order 
isan  evolve. 

5.  The  Science  of  Sociology.  Sociology  is  one 
of  the  latest  sciences  to  develop.  It  represents,  ac- 
cording to  Lester  F.  Ward,  the  last  and  highest 
landing  on  the  staircase  of  knowledge,  or  the  cap 
sheaf  and  crown  of  any  true  organization  of  the 
sciences.  Let  us  examine  the  antecedent  elements 
^as_a  basis  for  stating  the  task  of  sociology. 

For  centuries,  accurate  and  scientific  studies  have 
been  made  of  the  phenomena  in  the  inorganic,  non- 
living, and  material  world.  The  facts  concerning 
the  earth  as  a  member  of  the  galaxy  of  the  heavens 
have  been  organized  under  the  science  of  astron- 
omy ;  concerning  heat,  light,  electricity  and  similar 
physical  forces,  under  the  science  of  physics ;  con- 
cerning the  primary  elements  of  which  material 
bodies  are  composed,  under  the  science  of  chem- 


412  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

istry.  All  these  sciences  have  developed  on  -the 
basis  of  mathematics  as  the  tool  of  accurate  think- 
ing, analysis,  and  classification. 

As  a  result  of  these  studies,  man  has  been  able 
to  make  marked  progress  in  gaining  control  of  the 
ohysical  resources  of  the  earth.  He  has  been  able 
to  extract  metals  from  their  ores,  to  increase  mar- 
velously  the  food  production  of  the  soil,  to  turn 
iron  ore  into  powerful  machines  driven  by  steam, 
gas,  or  electricity,  and  to  conquer  in  a  limited  way 
both  time  and  space. 

In  addition  to  the  accurate  investigations  ^.which 
have  been  made  in  the  physical    world  of  matter, 
recent    decades    have    witnessed    profoundly    far- 
reaching  studies  of  the  phenomena  which  charac- 
terize the  world  of  l^ving_things.     Upon  the  basis 
<of  known  physical  laws,  it  has  been  possible  to 
jirjply  scientific  methods  in  the  field  of  organic  activ- 
ities.     The  phenomena  concerning  plant  life  have 
been  investigated  in  the  name  of  botany,  and  con- 
cerning animal  life  in  the  name  of  zoology.    The 
principles  which  have  been  established  in  the  several 
organic  fields  have  been  formulated  into  the  general 
science  of  biology,  the  science  of  all  living  things. 
/The  subject  matter  of  the  biological  sciences  is 
more  complex  than  that  of  the  physical  sciences, 

(partly  because  it  is  based  directly  and  indirectly 
upon  the  laws  of  the  physical  universe,  which  the 
physical  sciences  have  not  yet  adequately  described, 


GROUP  PROGRESS  413 

and  partly  because  it  is  composed  specifically  of 
non-mechanical,  ever-changing,  and  often  rapid 
changing,  evolving,  living  beings.  Biological  knowl- 
edge has  enabled  man  to  develop  modified  forms 
of  plant  and  animal  life  which  are  exceedingly 
useful.  It  has  given  man  a  certain  dominance  over 
the  ills  which  attack  living  beings,  especially  those 
which  are  caused  by  pathogenic  bacteria. 

During  the  last  part  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
a  few  scholars  began  to  concentrate  attention  upon 
a  complex  phase  of  living  phenomena,  namely,  the 
psychical  side  of  life.  The  psychological  sciences 
are  based  directly  upon  biological  facts  and  laws, 
jmd  indirectly  upon  the  laws  of  the  physical  uni- 
verse. Their  subject  matter  is  unusually  difficult 
"to"  study,  because  it  is  spiritual,  intangible,  chang- 
ing, and  not  easily  measured  by  mathematical 
standards.  Nevertheless,  specific  scientific  progress 
has  been  made  in  the  discovery  of  psychological 
principles  and  in  their  application  to  educational 
processes,  to  industrial  efficiency,  and  to  the  ab- 
normal and  normal  phases  of  mental  life. 

Still  more  recently,  the  most  complex  phase  of  \ 
human  life,  namely,  human  association,  is  being 
scientifically  studied.  The  living  of  human  beings 
in  groups  is  the  subject  of  the  social  sciences.  The 
study  of  the  wealth  getting  and  wealth  using  phe- 
nomena of  societary  life  is  known  as  economics ;  of 
the  community  and  governing  activities,  as  political 


414  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

science ;  of  the  personal  conduct  activities,  as  ethics ; 
of  the  mental  training  activities,  as  education ;  and 
of  the  attempts  to  meet  the  highest  spiritual  needs, 
as  religion. 

Other  leading  social  sciences  are  those  in  the 
historical  group.  Analytic  and  synthetic  descrip- 
tions of  peoples  in  the  past  are  known  as  the  science 
of  ethnology;  and  of  the  origin  of  mankind,  an- 
thropology. 

To  consider  human  association,  however,  from 
the  standpoint  of  any  one  phase,  such  as  economic 
activities,  or  political  activities,  gives  a  biased  view 

<of  group  life.  Sociology,  a  scientific  study  of  the 
processes  and  laws  of  group  life,  is  needed.  It  is 
necessary  to  know  the  processes  by  which  groups 
develop  and  stimulate  personalities  to  their  full 
fruition  and  by  which  personalities  are  controlled 
by  this  fundamental  knowledge,  before  an  individ- 
ual can  function  well  in  any  domestic,  economic, 
political,  educational,  esthetic,  religious  capacity. 

The  new  sociology  is  the  product  of  three  more 
or  less  distinct  lines  of  sociological  development. 
One  of  these  historical  antecedents  is  social  philos- 
ophy, which  may  be  said  to  have  originated  with 
Plato  and  Aristotle;  to  have  been  focalized  by 
Auguste  Comte,  the  French  philosopher  who  coined 
the  term,  sociology,  about  1838;  to  have  been  in- 
troduced to  America  through  the  biological  evolu- 
tionism and  the  laissez  faire  doctrines  of  Herbert 


GROUP  PROGRESS  415 

Spencer,  whose  ideas  in  part  were  vigorously  cham- 
pioned by  W.  G.  Sumner,  and  at  other  points 
successfully  challenged  by  Lester  F.  Ward. 

Another  antecedent  of  modern  sociology  is  found 
in  the  concepts,  charity  and  philanthropy.  This 
movement  began  with  the  ancient  and  simple  meth- 
ods of  helping  one's  neighbor,  and  extends  to  and 
includes  the  current  organized  and  scientific  efforts 
to  remove  the  sufferings  of  the  masses  of  people 
who  may  be  living  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  earth 
from  the  givers.  This  type  of  social  effort  has 
produced  what  is  known  today  variously,  as  social 
work,  social  reform,  social  technology,  and  some- 
times! applied  sociology.  It  concerns  itself  with 
preventive  and  remedial  formulae  of  treating  count- 
less forms  of  social  maladjustments. 

The  third  approach  to  modern  sociology  is  the 
latest  to  be  developed  and  the  most  vital;  it  is 
known  as  the  social  psychological  method.  Behavior 
is  the  new  center  of  study.  Research  has  been 
directed  to  animal  behavior,  to  the  behavior  of 
primitive  peoples,  and  to  current  human  behavior. 

Current  sociology  is  the  product  of  these  three 
sets  of  contributions,  social  philosophy,  social  tech- 
nology, and  social  psychology.  The  merging  of  these 
lines  of  development  has  created  a  distinctive  mo- 
rale along  the  whole  sociological  front.  Sociology 
has  become  a  tangible,  dynamic,  scientific  study  of 
group  phenomena  and  social  processes  with  an  em- 


416  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

phasis  upon  personality,  social  attitudes  and  values, 
and  behavior. 

The  outstanding  force  which  sociology  studies 
is  personality,  and  the  major  societary  process  that 
sociology  considers  is  that  by  which  personalities 
are  developed  into  fully  functioning  and  co-opera- 
tive persons  as  a  result  of  being  active  members  of 
groups.  The  infant  is  born  into  dominant  sets  of 
family,  racial,  national,  and  religious  traditions, 
and  during  his  early  years  his  attitudes  and  inter- 
ests are  largely  determined  by  these  traditions.  On 
the  other  hand,  he  possesses  inner  needs  which 
gradually  become  definite,  causing  him  to  react  in 
unique  ways  to  the  various  traditions  of  the  differ- 
ent groups  of  which  he  is  directly  or  indirectly  a 
member.  These  give-and-take  processes,  often  as- 
suming a  confusing  social  complexity,  constitute 
the  primary  field  of  investigation  in  sociology. 

The  problems  of  human  society  have  become  in- 
creasingly important  in  recent  years.  The  common 
people  have  been  raising  questions  regarding  the 
meaning  of  social  4emocracy.  The  World  War 
created  a  demand  for  democracy  before  the  masses 
of  mankind  really  learned  the  nature  of  democracy 
or  understood  normal  methods  of  securing  it.  The 
cry,  more  or  less  blind,  but  nevertheless  genuine, 
vociferous,  and  planetary,  for  social,  industrial, 
political,  and^rejigious  democracy  on  the  part  of 
"oppressed  groups  everywhere  has  aroused  attention 


GROUP  PROGRESS  417 

in  a  thousand  new  ways  to  the  need  of  securing  a 
better  knowledge  of  group  evolution  along  demo- 
cratic lines.  ' 

As  a  result  of  sociological  study,  it  is  becoming 
more  and  more  feasible  for  human  groups  to  direct 
their  own  evolution.  To  the  extent  that  the  prin- 
ciple of  social  telesis  is  understood  and  adopted,  it 
is  decreasingly  necessary  for  human  societies  to 
grope  hither  and  thither  in  the  dark,  to  advance 
and  then  to  retrograde  in  alternate  fashion.  Social 
telesis,  based  on  sociological  knowledge,  will  enable 
all  groups  from  the  smallest  to  the  world  com- 
munity to  evolve  steadily,  always  forward,  and 
democratically. 

The  need  for  sociology  is  clear.  At  least  the 
possession  of  the  sociological  point  of  view  is  a 
minimum  essential  for  every  member  of  human  so- 
ciety, in  order  that  all  groups  may  function  up  to 
their  richest  possibilities.  The  need  for  a  universal 
study  of  sociology  is  based  on  several  factors. 

(1)  Sociology  offers  a  point  of  view  which  is 
humanly  superior.  The  sociological  viewpoint  is 
the  attitude  of  considering  every  problem  of  life  in 
the  light  of  the  welfare  of  society.  The  individual 
views  his  personal  problems  in  the  light  of  the  wel- 
fare of  all  the  social  groups  of  which  he  is  a  member, 
including  the  world  group ;  the  group  itself  passes 
judgment  continually  on  itself  in  the  light  of  the 
needs  of  other  social  groups,  again  including  the 


418  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

world  community. 

The  sociological  attitude  gives  unbiased  attention 
to  all  sides  of  any  human  problem.  To  meet  this 
standard  is  not  easy  even  when  a  person  is  simply 
an  impartial  spectator  and  has  no  personal  interests 
involved  in  the  situation;  but  when  one's  desires 
and  welfare  is  represented  on  one  side  or  the  other 
of  the  struggle,it  is  exceedingly  difficult  to  view  all 
phases  of  the  situation  in  a  purely  unbiased  man- 
ner. 

A  plea  for  a  sociological  attitude  is  indirectly  but 
powerfully  made  by  John  Galsworthy  in  his  drama 
entitled  Strife,  where  it  is  shown  how  the  bitter 
struggles  between  labor  and  capital  are  perpetuated 
because  neither  side  is  broadminded  enough  to  per- 
ceive the  problems  arid  needs  of  the  opponent.  When 
each  contender  through  suffering  reaches  a  position 
where  with  unbiased  eyes  it  perceives  the  other's 
point  of  view,  misunderstanding  is  eliminated,  and 
conciliation  and  harmonious  progress  results.  If 
both  the  opponents  in  the  bitter  struggle  between 
labor  and  capital  had  had  a  sociological  attitude, 
each  would  have  seen  that  employees  and  employers 
fundamentally  have  nearly  everything  in  common, 
that  their  primary  aim  should  be  to  meet  the  needs 
of  consumers  as  efficiently  and  inexpensively  as 
possible,  and  that  reasoning  together,  arbitrating, 
and  arriving  at  conciliatory  solutions  are  the  chief 
roads  to  mutual  and  hence  social  progress.  , 


GROUP  PROGRESS  419 

A  person  with  a  sociological  attitude  would  not 
engage  in  any  business  which  is  socially  non-pro- 
ductive or  which  depends  for  its  maintenance  upon 
raising  the  cost  of  living  and  depriving  worthy  per- 
sons of  a  full  chance  to  reach  their  best.  If  a  lawyer, 
he  would  not  assist  clients,  for  pay,  to  violate  the 
laws  of  the  city  or  nation.  If  a  citizen,  he  would 
place  his  interests  in  his  national  group  and  its 
government  ahead  of  his  own  private,  gainful  in- 
terests. A  person  with  a  sociological  attitude  would 
put  always  and  everywhere,  in  his  private  business 
and  public  life  the  human  standard  of  values  above 
the  economic  standard.  It  is  only  upon  the  basis 
of  the  sociological  attitude  that  human  groups  and 
individual  persons  alike  can  move  unfalteringly, 
steadily,  and  nationally  toward  the  ideals  of  highest 
usefulness. 

(2)  Sociology    offers    permanently    significant 
ideas.    It  deals  with  concepts  which  are  the  largest 
dependable  terms  known  to  mankind.  They  pertain 
to  the  deepest  processes  of  personal  and  group  na- 
ture; they  explain  all  the  diversified  activities  of 
human  beings.    All  human  life  in  its  most  concrete 
details  can  be  explained  and  understood  in  terms, 
such  as  isolation  and  interaction;  conflict,  accom- 
modation, and  co-operation ;  attitudes,  values,  and 
behavior;  individualization  and  socialization. 

(3)  Sociology  analyzes  present-day  social  condi- 
tions from  the  standpoint  both  of  groups  and  indi- 


420  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

viduals.  It  gives  to  troubled  persons  as  effective  a 
key  to  the  problems  of  associative  life  as  has  yet 
been  made.  It  lays  bare  social  maladjustments,  in- 
dividual chicanery,  and  group  selfishness.  It  de- 
picts the  constructive  elements  of  social  processes. 

(4)  Sociology  balances  the  age-long  emphasis 
on  self  culture  and  self  development.  It  is  a  true  so- 
cial culture  study.    When    all   persons    are   fully 
versed  in  social  culture  a  new  heaven  and  a  new 
earth  will  be  realized.  Self  development  is  essential, 
but  without  the  controlling  influence  of  social  cul- 
ture, both  groups  and  individuals  are  doomed. 

(5)  Sociology  develops  socialized  personalities. 
It  leads  to  a  rich  and  balanced  expression  of  both 
the  individual  and  social  phases  of  human  nature. 
It  creates  fundamental  attitudes  which  result  in  so- 
cialized behavior,  that  is,  unselfish  behavior  in  be- 
half of  other  persons  and  groups. 

(6)  Sociology  leads  to  the  profession  of  teaching 
the  subject.    As  already  shown  in  this  chapter,  the 
field  for  sociology  teachers  is  well  diversified,  cen- 
tering in  college  and  university  work,  but  extending 
also  to   normal    schools,   high   schools,   and   even 
through  the  elementary  schools. 

(7)  Sociology  leads  to  social  work  as  a  profes- 
sion.   The  leader  of  groups  and  the  case  worker  are 
in  increasing  demand.    The  case  worker,  whether 
doing  personal  work  in  the  social  resuscitation  of 
individuals  or  of  family  groups,  is  rendering  a  high 


GROUP  PROGRESS  421 

type  of  service. 

(8)  Sociology  suggests  useful  avocations.    Every 
thoughtful  person  gives  his  attention  to  one  or  more 
avocations  as  well  as  to  a  main  vocation.    By  so 
doing  his  personality  is  enriched  and  his  usefulness 
augmented.    Only  a  small  number  of  persons  can 
be  sociologists  but  every  person  can  develop  an 
interest  in  a  social  avocation,  such  as  child  welfare 
work,  housing  welfare,  or  community  welfare,  at 
least  to  the  extent  of  becoming  a  local  authority  in 
his  avocational  field. 

(9)  Sociology  points  the  way  to  democracy,  that 
is,  to  a  condition  of  society  where  people  are  ruling, 
each  not  primarily  for  his  own  gain  but  for  the  wel- 
fare of  other  persons.    Sociology  overcomes  narrow 
prejudices,  class  hatred,  and  selfish  ambition;  and 
stimulates  every  person  who  appreciates  the  mean- 
ing of  the  fundamental  sociological  concepts  to  ren- 
der to  all  other  persons  and  to  all  groups  of  which 
he  is  a  member  from  the  family  group  to  the  world 
group  a  full  measure  of  unselfish  service. 


422  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 


PROBLEMS 

1.  Why  has   sociology  been  one  of  the  latest  sciences  to 

develop  ? 

2.  Why  has  sociology  developed  rapidly  as  a  college  study? 

3.  Why  should  social  studies  be  taught  in  the  elementary 

grades? 

4.  \Vhy  is  teaching  sociology  more  important  than  social 

work  or  social   reform? 

5.  How  is  a  social  science  such  as  economics  indebted  to 

sociology? 

6.  What  are  the  antecedents  of  current  sociology? 

7.  Give  a  new  illustration  of  the  sociological  attitude  or 

point  of  view? 

8.  When  is  it  most  difficult  to  maintain  a  sociological  atti- 

tude? 

9.  WThat  is  greater  than  a  socialized  personality? 

10.  Why   is   sociology  needed  so  much  even  in   a  modern 
Christian  civilization? 


SELECTED  READINGS 
CHAPTER  I 

Blackmar  and  Gillin,   Outlines   of  Sociology,  Part  I,  Chs. 

I-III. 
Carver,  T.  N.,   (compiler),  Sociology  and  Social  Progress, 

Introduction. 

Chapin,  F.  Stuart,  Social  Evolution,  Ch.  III. 
Clow,  F.  R.,  Principles  of  Sociology  with  Educational  Appli- 
cations, Ch.  V. 
Cooley,  C.  H.,  Human  Nature  and  the  Social  Order,  Ch.  I. 

Social  Organization,  Chs.  III-V. 

Dealey,  J.  Q.,  Sociology  (1920  edition),  Ch.  I. 

Dow,  G.  S.,  Introduction  to  the  Principles    of    Sociology, 

Chs.  I,  II. 

Ellwood,  C.  A.    Sociology    and    Modern    Social   Problems 
(1919  edition),  Ch.  L 

Sociology  in  its  Psychological  Aspects,  Chs,  I-III. 

The  Social  Problem,  Ch.  I. 

Fairchild,  H.  P.,  Outline  of  Applied  Sociology,  Chs.  I-XI. 
Giddings,  F.  H.,  Elements  of  Sociology,  Ch.  I. 

Inductive  Sociology,  Chs.  I,  II. 

Readings  in  Descriptive  and  Historical  Sociology, 

Book  I,  Ch.  III. 
Gillette,  J.  M.,  Sociology,  Ch.  I. 

Hayes,  E.  C.,  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Sociology,  Ch.  I. 
Kirkpatrick,  E.  A.,  Fundamentals  of  Sociology,  Chs.  I,  II. 
Nearing,  Scott,  Social  Adjustment,  Chs.  I,  II. 
Park  and  Burgess,  Introduction  to  the  Science  of  Sociology, 
Ch.  III. 


424  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

Patten,  S.  N.,  The  New  Basis  of  Civilization,  Ch.  I. 

Ross,  Edward  A.,  Principles  of  Sociology,  Ch.  I. 

Rowe,  H.  K.,  Society:  Its  Origin  and  Development,  Chs.  I, 
II. 

Smith,  W.  R.,  An  Introduction   to   Educational  Sociology, 
Chs.  I,  II. 

Stuckenberg,  J.  H.  W.,  Sociology,  Vol.  I,  Ch.  I. 

Wallas,  Graham,  Our  Social  Heritage,  Chs.  I,  II. 
The  Great  Society,  Ch.  I. 

Watson,  David,  Social  Advance,  Ch.  I. 

Wolfe,  A.  B.,  (editor),  Readings  in  Social  Problems,  Intro- 
duction. 


CHAPTER  II 

Blackmar  and  Gillin,  Outlines  of  Sociology,  Part  II,  Ch.  II. 
Buckle,  in  Carver,  Sociology  and  Social  Progress,  Ch.  X. 
Giddings,  F.  H.,  Elements  of  Sociology,  Ch.  III. 
Hayes,  E.  C.,  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Sociology,  Ch.  III. 
Huntingdon,  Ellsworth,  Civilization  and  Climate. 
Kelsey,  Carl,  The  Physical  Basis  of  Society,  Ch.  I. 
Ross,  Edward  A.,  Principles  of  Sociology,  Ch.  VII. 
Semple,  Ellen  C.,  The  Influences  of  the  Geographic  Envi- 
ronment. 

Shaler,  N.  S.,  Man  and  the  Earth. 
Thomas,  W.  I.,  Source  Book  for  Social  Origins,  Part  I. 
Todd,  A.  J.,  Theories  of  Social  Progress,  Ch.  IX. 

CHAPTER  III 

Bristol,  L.  M.,  Social  Adaptation,  Ch.  IV. 
Clow,  F.  R.,  Principles  of  Sociology  with  Educational  Ap- 
plications, Chs.  XII,  XIII. 


SELECTED  READINGS  425 

Cooley,  C.  H.,  Social  Process,  Chs.  XVIII,  XIX. 

Davenport,  C.  B.,  Heredity  in  Relation  to  Eugenics. 

Davies,  G.  R.,  Social  Environment,  Chs.  I-IV. 

Dealey,  J.  Q.,  Sociology,   (1920  edition),  Ch.  VI. 

Doncaster,  L.,  Heredity. 

Ellwood,  C.  A.,  Sociology  and    Modern    Social    Problems 

(1919  edition),  Ch.  II. 
Galton,  Francis,  "Eugenics:  Its  Definition,  Scope  and  Aims," 

Amer.  Jour,  of  Sociology,  X:   1-25. 
Geyer,  M.  F.,  Being  Well-Born. 
Goddard,  H.  H.;  The  Kallikak  Family. 
Godfrey,  Hollis,  The  Health  of  the  City. 
Hayes,  E.  C.,  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Sociology,  Chs. 

XIII,  XIV. 

Hill,  H.  W.,  The  New  Public  Health. 
Holmes,  Samuel  J.,  The  Trend  of  the  Race. 
Keller,  A.  G.,  Societal  Evolution,  Chs.  I,  II. 
Kellicott,  W.  E.,  Social  Direction  of  Human  Evolution. 
Kelsey,  Carl,  The  Physical  Basis  of  Society,  Chs.  V,  VI. 
Mangold,  George,  Problems  of  Child  Welfare,  Part  II. 
Patten,  S.  N.,  Heredity  and  Social  Progress. 
Pearson,  Karl,  Nature  and  Nurture. 
Popenoe,  Paul  and  R.  H.  Johnson,  Applied  Eugenics. 
Saleeby,  C.  W.,  The  Progress  of  Eugenics. 

The  Eugenic  Prospect. 

Todd,  A.  J.,  Theories  of  Social  Progress,  Chs.  XVI,XVII. 
Wolfe,  A.  B.,  (editor),  Reading  in  Social  Problems,  Ch.  IV. 

CHAPTER  IV 

Blackmar  and  Gillin,  Outlines  of  Sociology,  Part  III,  Ch.  V. 
Boas,  Franz,  The  Mind  of  Primitive  Man. 
Clow,  F.  R.,  Principles  of  Sociology  with  Educational  Ap- 
plications, Chs.  Ill,  V. 


426  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

Dealey,  J.  Q.,  Sociology  (1920  edition),  Ch.  VII. 

Ellwood,  C.  A.,  Sociology  in  its  Psychological  Aspects,  Chs. 

IX-XIV. 

Sociology  and  Modern  Social  Problems  (1919  edi- 
tion), Ch.  III. 

Hobhouse,  L.  T.,  The  Rational  Good,  Chs.  I.  II. 
'  Kirkpatrick,  E.  A.,  Fundamentals  of  Sociology,  Ch.  IV. 

McDougall,  William,  Introduction  to  Social  Psychology,  Chs. 
II,  III. 

Park  and  Burgess,  Introduction  to  the  Science  of  Sociology, 
pp.  108-125. 

Ross,  Edward  A.,  Principles  of  Sociology,  Ch.  IV. 

Thomas,  W.  I.,  Source  Book  for  Social  Origins,  Parts  II,  III. 

Todd,  A.  J.,  Theories  of  Social  Progress,  Chs.  III-IV-V. 

Trotter,  W.,  Instincts  of  the  Herd  in  Peace  and  War. 

Wundt,  William,  Elements  of  Folk  Psychology,  Introduction. 


CHAPTER  V 

Blackmar  and  Gillin,  Outlines  of  Sociology,  Part  III,  Ch.  II. 

Bristol,  L.  M.,  Social  Adaptation,  Part  V. 

Bogardus,  Emory  S.,  A  History  of  Social  Thought,  Chs. 

XXII,  XXIII. 
Chapin,  F.  Stuart,  An  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Social 

Evolution,  Ch.  IV. 
Cooley,  C.  H.,  Human  Nature  and  the  Social  Order,  Chs. 

III-VI. 

Social  Organization,  Chs.  I,  II,  XI,  XVI,  XVII. 

Social  Process,  Ch.  IV. 
Dealey,  J.  Q.,  Sociology  (1920  edition),  Ch.  IX. 
Giddings,  F.  H.,  Reading  in  Descriptive  and  Historical 

Sociology,  Book  II,  Part  II. 


SELECTED  READINGS  427 

Hayes,  E.  C.,  Sociology  and  Ethics,  Ch.  VII. 

Park  and  Burgess,  Introduction  to  the  Science  of  Sociology. 

Ross,  Edward  A.,  Principles  of  Sociology,  Chs.  IV,  V,  VIII, 

IX,  X. 

Small,  A.  W.,  General  Sociology,  Ch.  XIV. 
Smith,  W.  R.,  An  Introduction  to  Educational  Sociology, 

Ch.  III. 
Todd,  A.  J.,  Theories  of  Social  Progress,  Chs.  IV.  V,  XX. 


CHAPTER  VI 

Alder,  Felix,  Marriage  and  Divorce. 

Blackmar  and  Gillin,  Outlines  of  Sociology,  Part  II.  Chs. 
V-VII. 

Bosanquet,  Helen,  The  Family. 

Calhoun,  A.  W.,  A  Social  History  of  the  American  Family. 

Dealey,  J.  Q.,  Sociology  (1920  edition),  Ch.  XV. 
The  Family  in  its  Sociological  Aspects. 

Ellwood,   C.   A.,  Sociology   and  Modern  Social  Problems 
(1919  edition),  Chs.  I  V-VII. 

Fairchild,  H.  P.,  Outline   of  Applied  Sociology,  Chs.  XII, 
XV,  XVI. 

Gillette,  J.  M.,  The  Family  and  Society. 

Goodsell,  Willystine,  The  Family  as  a  Social  and  Educational 
Institution. 

Howard,   George   Elliott,  History   of  Matrimonial  Institu- 
tions. 

Kirkpatrick,  E.  A.,  Fundamentals  of  Sociology,  Ch.  XV. 

Patten,  S.  N.,  The  New  Basis  of  Civilization,  Ch.  III. 

Ross,  Edward  A.,  Principles  of  Sociology,  Ch.  XLIX. 

Todd,  A.  J.,  The  Primitive  Family  as  an  Educational  Agency. 


428  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

Thomas,  W.  I.,  Sex  and  Society. 
Westermarck,  E.  A.,  History  of  Human  Marriage. 
Wolfe,  A.  B.,   (editor),  Readings  in  Social  Problems,  Chs. 
X-XII. 


CHAPTER  VII 

Anthony,  K.  S.,  Mothers  Who  Must  Earn. 

Bacon,  A.  F.,  Beauty  for  Ashes. 

Barnes,  E.,  Woman  in  Modern  Society. 

Bashore,  H.  B.,  Rural  Housing. 

Byington,  Margaret,  Homestead. 

Cooley,  C.  H.,  Social  Organization,  Ch.  XXXI. 

De  Forest,  R.  W.,  and  L.  Veiller,   The  Tenement  House 

Problem. 

Devine,  E.  T.,  The  Family  and  Social  Work. 
Ellwood,   C.   A.,   Sociology   and  Modern  Social  Problems 

(1919  edition). 
Howard,  George  Elliott,  "Bad  Marriage  and  Quick  Divorce," 

Journal  of  Applied  Sociology,  Dec.  1921,  pp.  1-10. 
Lichtenberger,  J.  P.,  Divorce,  A  Study  in  Social  Causation. 
Nearing,  Scott  and  Nellie,  Woman  and  Social  Progress. 
Richardson,  B.  J.,  The  Woman  Who  Spends. 
Riis,  Jacob,  The  Peril  and  Preservation  of  the  Home. 
Ross,  Edward  A.,  Changing  America,  Chs.  III,IV. 
Saleeby,  C.  W.,  Parenthood  and  Race  Culture. 
Savage,  W.  G.,  Rural  Housing. 
Tarbell,  Ida  M.,  The  Business  of  Being  a  Woman. 
Thompson,  R.  E.,  The  History  of  the  Dwelling  House  and 

its  Future. 
Veiller,  Lawrence,  Housing  Reform. 


SELECTED  READINGS  429 

Wolfe,  A.   B.,    (editor),    The  Lodging  House  Problem  in 

Boston. 
Wood,  Edith,  Housing  of  the  Unskilled  Wage  Earner. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

Addams,  Jane,   The  Spirit  of  Youth  and  the  City  Streets. 
Atkinson,  H.  A.,  The  Church  and  the  People's  Play. 
Davis,  Jr.,  M.  M.,  The  Exploitation  of  Pleasure. 
Edwards,  R.  H.,  Popular  Amusements. 
Groos,  K.,  The  Play  of  Animals. 

—The  Play  of  Man. 
Lee,  Joseph,  Play  in  Education. 

Patten,  S.  N.,  The  New  Basis  of  Civilization,  Ch.  VI. 
Rainwater,  Clarence  E.,  The  Play  Movement  in  the  United 

States. 

Ross,  Edward  A.,  Principles  of  Sociology,  Ch.  LII. 
Smith,  W.  R.,  An  Introduction  to  Educational  Sociology. 
Ward,  E.  J.,  The  Social  Center. 


CHAPTER  IX 

Brooks,  J.  G.,  Labor's  Challenge  to  the  Social  Order. 

The  Social  Unrest. 

Clopper,  E.  N.,  Child  Labor  in  the  City  Streets. 
Commons,  John  R.  and  associates,  History  of  Labor  in  the 

United  States. 
Davis,  Phillip,  Street  Land. 
Ely,  R.  T.,  The  Evolution  of  Industrial  Society. 


430  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

Fairchild,  H.  P.,  Outline  of  Applied  Sociology,  Chs.  IV-X. 
Groat,  G.  G.,  An  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Organized 

Labor  in  America. 
Hayes,  E.  C.,  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Sociology,  Chs. 

IV-XIL 

Kelley,  Florence,  Modern  Industry,  91-106. 
Mangold,  G.  B.,  Problems  of  Child  Welfare,  Part  IV. 
Maclver,  R.  M.,  Labor  in  the  Changing  World. 
Nearing,  Scott,  Social  Adjustment,  Chs.  IV,  IX,  XIII. 
Rae,  J.,  Eight  Hours  for  Work. 
Ross,  Edward  A.,  Principles  of  Sociology,  Ch.  L. 
Tannenbaum,  Frank,  The  Labor  Movement. 
Van  Kleeck,  Mary,  Artificial  Flower  Makers. 
Veblen,  Thorstein,  The  Theory  of  the  Leisure  Class. 

The  Instinct  of  Workmanship. 

Ward,  H.  F.,  The  New  Social  Order. 

Yarros,  V.  S.,  "Social  Science  and  What    Labor    Wants," 

Amer.  Jour,  of  Sociology,  XVI:   308-22. 


CHAPTER  X 

Abbott,  Edith,  Women  in  Industry. 
Butler,  Elizabeth,  Women  and  the  Trades. 
Campbell,  G.  L.,  Industrial  Accident  Compensation. 
Devine,  E.  T.,  Misery  and  its  Causes. 
George,  Henry,  Progress  and  Poverty. 
Giddings,  F.  H.,  Democracy  and  Empire,  Chs.  VI-IX. 
Gillin,  John  L.,  Poverty  and  Dependence. 
Goldmark,  Josephine,  Fatigue  and  Efficiency. 
Kelley,  Florence,  Modern  Industry. 
Oliver,  Thomas,  Dangerous  Trades. 
Diseases  of  Occupation. 


SELECTED  READINGS  431 

Parmelee,  Maurice,  Poverty  and  Social  Progress. 

Ross,  Edward  A.,  Changing  America)  Ch.  VI. 

Rowntree,  B.  S.,  Poverty. 

Solenberger,  Alice,  One  Thousand  Homeless  Men. 

Warner,  Amos  G.,  American  Charities,  third  edition. 

Webb,  Sidney  and  Beatrice,  The  Prevention  of  Destitution. 

Woods,  R.  A.  and  A.  J.  Kennedy,  Young  Working  Girls. 


CHAPTER  XI 

Carver,  T.  N.,  (compiler),  Essays  in  Social  Justice. 
Commons,  J.  R.,  Industrial  Goodwill. 

Industrial  Government. 

Cross,  Ira    B.,  Essentials  of  Socialism. 

Giddings,  F.  H.,  Democracy  and  Empire,  Chs.  VI-IX. 

Henderson,  C.  R.,  Citizens  in  Industry. 

Hobson,  J.  A.,  The  Evolution  of  Modern  Capitalism. 

King,  W.  L.  M.,  Industry  and  Humanity. 

Kirkup,  Thomas,  History  of  Socialism. 

Marx,  Karl,  Capital. 

Mecklin,  J.  M.,  An  Introduction  to  Social  Ethics,  Ch.  XX. 

Rowntree,  B.  Seebohm,  The  Human  Factor  in  Business. 

Seager,  H.  R.,  Social  Insurance. 

Small,  A.  W.,  Between  Eras,  from  Capitalism  to  Democracy. 

Spargo,  John,  Applied  Socialism. 

Tawney,  R.  H.,  The  Acquisitive  Society. 

Van  Hise,  C.  R.,  Concentration  and  Control. 

Veblen,  Thorstein,  The  Theory  of  the  Leisure  Class. 

Ward,  H.  F.,  The  New  Social  Order. 

Webb,  Sidney  and  Beatrice,  Industrial  Democracy. 

The  Prevention  of  Destitution. 

Wundt,  William,  Elements  of  Folk  Psychology,  Ch.  IV. 


432  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

CHAPTER  XII 

Addams,  Jane,  Democracy  and  Social  Ethics. 

Newer  Ideals  of  Peace. 

Blackmar  and  Gillin,  Outlines  of  Sociology,  Part  II,  Chs. 

VII,  VIII;  Part  IV,  Chs.  II,  IV,  VI. 

Bogardus,  Emory  S.,  Essentials  of  Americanization,  Ch.  IV. 
Clow,  F.  R.,  Principles  of  Sociology  with  Educational  Ap- 
plications, Ch.  X. 
Cooley,  C.  H.,  Social  Process,  Ch.  XXIII. 

Social  Organization,  Chs.  XIV,  XV. 

Dealey,  J.  Q.,  Sociology  (1920  edition),  Ch.  XVI. 
Giddings,  F.  H.,  Elements  of  Sociology,  Chs.  XXI,  XXII. 

Democracy  and  Empire. 

Hart,  J.  K.,  Community  Organization. 
Hobson,  J.  A.,  Problems  of  a  New  World,  Part  V. 
Howe,  F.  C.,  Privilege  and  Democracy  in  America. 
Maclver,  R.  M.,  Community,  Book  II. 
Ross,  Edward  A.,  Principles  of  Sociology,  Ch.  LIII. 
Veblen,  Thorstein,  The  Nature  of  Peace. 
Wallas,  Graham,  Our  Social  Heritage,  Ch.  IX. 
Williams,  James  M.,  The  Foundations  of  Social  Science,  Chs. 
VII-X. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

Betts,  George  H.,  Social  Principles  of  Education. 
Blackmar  and  Gillin,  Outlines  of  Sociology,  Part  IV,  Ch.  IV. 
Bogardus,  Emory  S.,  A  History  of  Social  Thought,  Ch.  XXV. 
Boas,  Franz,    The  Mind  of  Primitive  Man. 
Dealey,  J.  Q.,  Sociology    (1920  edition),  Ch.  XXIX. 
Dutton,  S.  T.,  Social  Phases  of  Education. 


SELECTED  READINGS  433 

Ellwood,  C.  A.,  Sociology  and  Modern  Social  Problems  (1919 
edition),  Ch.  XVI. 

Fairchild  H.  P.,  Outline  of  Applied  Sociology,  Ch.  XIX. 

Giddings,  F.  H.,  Democracy  and  Empire,  Chs.  XIII,  XIV. 

Hayes,  E.  C.,  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Sociology,  Chs. 
XXXV,  XXXVI. 

King,  Irving,  Social  Aspects  of  Education. 
Education  for  Social  Efficiency. 

Mecklin,  J.  M.,  An  Introduction  to  Social  Ethics,  Ch.  XVI. 

Rogers,  A.  K.,  The  American  Newspaper. 

Ross,  Edward  A.,  Principles  of  Sociology,  Ch.  LI. 
Changing  America,  Chs.  IV,  VII. 

Scott,  C.  A.,  Social  Education. 

Smith,  W.  R.,  An  Introduction  to  Educational  Sociology. 

Snedden,  David,  Sociological  Determination  of  Objectives  in 
Education,  Ch.  I. 

Todd,  A.  J.,  Theories  of  Social  Progress,  Ch.  XXXIII. 

Wolfe,  A.  B.,   (editor),  Readings  in  Social  Problems,  Chs. 
XIII,  XIX. 

Yarros,  V.  S.,  "A  Neglected  Opportunity  and  Duty  in  Jour- 
nalism," Amer.  Jour,  of  Sociology,  XXII: 203-2 11. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

Batten,  S.  Z.,  The  Social  Task  of  Christianity. 

Blackmar  and  Gillin,  Outlines  of  Sociology,  Part  II,  Chs. 

XII,  XIII. 
Bogardus,  Emory   S.,  A  History  of  Social   Thought,  Ch. 

XXVI. 

Capen,  E.  W.,  Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands. 
Chatterton-Hill,  G.,  The  Sociological  Value  of  Christianity. 
Cooley,  C.  H.,  Social  Organization,  Ch.  XXXII. 


434  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

Cutting,  R.  F.,  The  Church  and  Society. 

Earp,  E.  E.,  The  Social  Engineer. 

Gladden,  Washington,  Social  Salvation. 

Kidd,  Benjamin,  Social  Evolution,  Ch.  V. 

Mathews,  Shailer,  The  Social  Teachings  of  Jesus. 

Peabody,  Francis  G.,  Jesus  Christ  and  the  Social  Question. 

The  Social  Conscience  and  the  Religious  Life. 

Rauschenbusch,  Walter,  Christianity  and  the  Social  Crisis. 

Christianizing  the  Social  Order. 

Scares,  T.  G.,  Social  Institutions  and  Ideals  of  the  Bible. 
Taylor,  Graham,  Religion  in  Social  Action. 
Wallis,  Louis,  Sociological  Study  of  the  Bible. 


CHAPTER  XV 

Bailey,  E.  H.,  The  Country  Life  Movement  in  the  United 
States. 

Butterfield,  K.  L.,  Chapters  in  Rural  Progress. 

Chapin,  F.  Stuart,  An  Historical  Introduction  to  Social  Econ- 
omy, Chs.  I,  VI,  XIV. 

Gillette,  J.  M.,  Constructive  Rural  Sociology. 

Harrison,  S.  M.,  Social  Conditions  in  an  American  City. 

Howe,  F.  C.,  The  Modern  City  and  its  Problems. 

Mecklin,  J.  M.,  An  Introduction  to  Social  Ethics,  Ch.  XXI. 

Phelan,  John,  Readings  in  Rural  Sociology. 

Sims,  N.  L.,  The  Rural  Community. 

Taylor,  G.  R.,  Satellite  Cities. 

Vogt,  Paul  L.,  Introduction  to  Rural  Sociology. 

Wilson,  W.  H.,  Evolution  of  the  Country  Community. 

Zueblin,  Charles,  American  Municipal  Progress. 


SELECTED  READINGS  435 


CHAPTER  XVI 

Abbott,  Grace.  The  Immigrant  and  the  Community. 

Antin,  Mary,  The  Promised  Land. 

Balch,  Emily  A.,  Our  Slavic  Fellow  Citizens. 

Bogardus,  Emory  S.,  Essentials  of  Americanization. 

Brawley,  Benjamin,  A  Social  History  of  the  American  Negro. 

Commons,  J.  R.,   Races  and  Immigrants  in  America. 

Cooley,  C.  H.,  Social  Process,  Ch.  XXIV. 

DuBo'is,  W.  E.  B.,  Darkwater. 

Fairchild,  H.  P.,  Immigration. 

Gulick,  S.  H.,  The  American  Japanese  Problem. 

Howard,  George  Elliott,  "The  Social  Cost  of  Southern  Race 

Prejudice,"  Amer.  Jour,  of  Sociology,  XXII: 577-93. 
Miller,  Kelly,   Race  Adjustment. 

Millis,  H.  A.,  The  Japanese  Problem  in  the  United  States. 
Park,  R.  A.  and  H.  A.  Miller,  Old  World  Traits  Transplanted. 
Roberts,  Peter,  The  Problem  of  Americanization. 
Scott,  E.  J.  and  L.  B.  Stowe,  Booker  T.  Washington,  Builder 

of  a  Civilization. 

Steiner,  E.  A.,  On  the  Trail  of  the  Immigrant. 
Tylor,  E.  B.,  Anthropology. 
Wolfe,  A.  B.,  (editor),  Readings  in  Social  Problems,  Books 

II,  V. 


CHAPTER  XVII 

Bascom,  John,  Aesthetics. 

Blackmar  and  Gillin,  Outlines  of  Sociology,  Part  III,  Ch.  VI; 

Part  IV,  Ch.  III. 
Fairchild,  H.  P.,   Outline  of  Applied  Sociology,  Ch.  XVIII. 


436  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

Hayes,  E.  C.,  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Sociology,  Part 

IV. 

Sociology  and  Ethics,  Ch.  III. 

Mecklin,  J.  M.,  An  Introduction  to  Social  Ethics,  Ch.  IX. 
Park  and  Burgess,  Introduction  to  the  Science  of  Sociology, 

Ch.  XII. 
Patrick,  G.  T.  W.,  The  Psychology  of  Social  Reconstruction, 

Ch.  VII. 
Ross,  Edward  A.,  Social  Control. 

—Principles  of  Sociology,  Ch.  XXXIV,  XXXV. 
Todd,  A.  J.,  Theories  of  Social  Progress,  Chs.  XXIV,  XXV, 

XXXII. 
Wundt,  William,  Elements  of  Folk  Psychology,  Ch.  I,  Sect. 

8;  Ch.  Ill,  Sect.  17. 

CHAPTER  XVIII 

Addams,  Jane,  Democracy  and  Social  Ethics. 

Blackmar  and  Gillin,  Outlines  of  Sociology,  Part  II,  Ch.  XI. 

Carver,  T.  N.,  (compiler),  Essays  in  Social  Justice. 

Dealey,  J.  Q.,  Sociology  (1920  edition),  Ch.  XVIII. 

Ellwood,  C.  A.,  The  Social  Problem,  Ch.  V. 

Giddings,  F.  H.,  Democracy  and  Empire,  Ch.  II. 

Hadley,  A.  T.,  Standards  of  Public  Morality. 

Hobson,  J.  A.,  Work  and  Wealth,  Chs.  I.  XI,  XIII. 

Kirkpatrick,  E.  A.,  Fundamentals  of  Sociology,  Ch.  X. 

Knowlson,  T.  Sharper,  Originality. 

Mecklin,  J.  M.,  An  Introduction  to  Social  Ethics,  Ch.  XIII. 

Rauschenbusch,  Walter,   Christianizing   the    Social    Order, 

Part  IV. 
Ross,  Edward  A.,  Social  Control,  Chs.  XXIV,  XXV. 

Sin  and  Society. 

-Principles  of  Sociology,  Ch.  XLVII. 


SELECTED  READINGS  437 

Sumner,  W.  G.,  Folkways. 

Todd,  A.  J.,  Theories  of  Social  Progress,  Chs.  XXVI,  XXVII. 

Usher,  R.  G.,  "The  Ethics  of  Business,"  Atlantic  Monthly, 

110:447-454. 

Urwick,  E.  J.,  A  Philosophy  of  Social  Progress,  Ch.  VI. 
Watson,  David,  Social  Advance,  Ch.  III. 
Wundt,  William,  Elements  of  Folk  Psychology,  Ch.  II,  Sect. 

10. 


CHAPTER  XIX 

Aschaffenburg,  G.,  Crime  and  its  Repression. 

Barnett,  Mary,  Young  Delinquents. 

Barrows,  I.  C.,  A  Sunny  Life. 

Blackmar  and  Gillin,  Outlines  of  Sociology,  Part  V. 

Breckinridge,  S.,  and  Edith  Abbott,  The  Delinquent  Child 

and  the  Home. 
Dealey,  J.  Q.,  Sociology  (1920  edition),  Chs.  XXIII,  XXV, 

XXVI. 

Eliot,  T.  D.,  The  Juvenile  Court  and  the  Community. 
Ellwood,  C.  A.,  Sociology  and  Modern  Social  Problems  (1919 

edition),  Ch.  XIV. 
George,  W.  R.,  The  Junior  Republic. 
Hayes,  E.  C.,  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Sociology,  Part 

IV. 
Henderson,  C.  R.,  The  Cause  and  Cure  of  Crime. 

Penal  and  Reformatory  Institutions. 

Lombroso,  C.,  Crime,  Its  Causes  and  Remedies. 

Osborne,  T.  M.,  Society  and  Prisons. 

Parmelee,  Maurice,  Criminology. 

Ross,  Edward  A.,  Sin  and  Society. 

Wines,  F.  H.,  Punishment  and  Reformation  (1919  edition). 


438  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

CHAPTER  XX 

Attlee,  C.  R.,  The  Social  Worker. 

Blackmar  and  Gillin,  Outlines  of  Sociology,  Part  VI. 

Bogardus,   Emory   S.,  A  History   of  Social   Thought,  Ch. 
XXVII. 

Burgess,  E.  W.,  "The  Social  Survey,"  Amer.  Jour,  of  Soci- 
ology, XXI:  492-500. 

Cabot,  Richard  C.,  Social  Work. 

Carver,  T.  N.,    (compiler),  Essays  in  Social  Justice,  Chs. 
XV,  XVI. 

Chapin,  F.  Stuart,  Field  Work  and  Social  Research. 

Clow,  F.  R.,  Principles  of  Sociology  with  Educational  Appli- 
cations. 

Devine,  E.  T.,  Social  Work. 

Devine,  E.  T.,  and  Mary  Van  Kleeck,  Positions  in  Social 
Work. 

Elmer,  M.  C.,  The  Technique  of  Social  Surveys. 

Giddings,  F.  H.,  Inductive  Sociology,  Book  II,  Part  IV. 

Readings  in  Descriptive  and  Historical  Sociology, 

Book  II,  Part  IV. 

Kirkpatrick,  E.  A.,  Fundamentals  of  Sociology,  Ch.  XX. 

Richmond,  Mary,  Social  Diagnosis. 

Steiner,  J.  F.,  Education  for  Social  Work. 

Todd,  A.  J.,  The  Scientific  Spirit  and  Social  Work. 


CHAPTER  XXI 

Baldwin.  J.  M.,  The  Individual  and  Society,  Ch.  VII. 
Blackmar  and  Gillin,  Outlines  of  Sociology,  Part  VII. 


SELECTED  READINGS  439 

Bogardus,   Emory   S.,  A  History   of  Social   Thought,    Ch. 

XXVIII. 

Essentials  of  Social  Psychology,  Ch.  XV. 

Clow,  F.  R.,  Principles  of  Sociology  with  Educational  Appli- 
cations, Ch.  XV. 

Cooley,  C.  H.,  Social  Process,  Ch.  XXXVIII. 
Dealey,  J.  Q.,  Sociology  (1920  edition),  Ch.  XXII,  XXX. 
Ellwood,  C.  A.,  Sociology  in  its  Psychological  Aspects,  Chs. 

XVIII,  XIX. 

Introduction  to  Social  Psychology,  Ch.  XIII. 

Fairchild,  H.  P.,  Outline  of  Applied  Sociology,  Ch.  XX. 
Giddings,  F.  H.,  Elements  of  Sociology,  Chs.  XXIII,  XXV. 
Howard,  George  Elliott,   "Sociology,    its    Critics    and    its 

Fruits,"  Journal  of  Applied  Sociology,  April,  1922, 

pp.   1-14. 

Kelsey,  Carl,  The  Physical  Basis  of  Society,  Ch.  XXI. 
Maclver,  R.  M.,  Community,  Book  III. 
Todd,  A.  J.,  Theories  of  Social  Progress,    Chs.    XXXIII, 

XXXIV. 

Urwick,  E.  J.,  A  Philosophy  of  Social  Progress. 
Wallas,  Graham,  The  Great  Society. 
Ward,  Lester  F.,  Pure  Sociology. 
Applied  Sociology. 


TOPICS  FOR  INVESTIGATION 
CHAPTER  I 

1.  A  description  of  the  social  life  of  a  primitive  tribe. 

2.  The  origin  and  development  of  a  given  social  institution. 

3.  An  analysis  of  a  social  group  (to  which  the  writer  be- 

longs). 

4.  The  contrasts  between  sociology  and  socialism. 

5.  The  relation  of  anthropology  to  sociology. 

6.  The  relation  of  history  to  sociology. 

7.  An  example  of  social  progress  (full  description). 

CHAPTER  II 

1.  A  social  study  of  the  Kentucky  mountaineers. 

2.  The  relation  of  geography  to  sociology. 

3.  The  effect  of  climate  and  geography  on  the  develop- 

ment of  your  city. 

4.  The  geographical  distribution  of  cities. 

5.  River  valleys  as  paths  of  migration  and  trade. 

6.  A  social  comparison  of  Tropical  peoples  and  Temperate 

peoples. 

7.  A  comparative  study  of  Arctic  and  Tropical  peoples. 


CHAPTER  III 

1.  A  study  of  the  Kallikak  family. 

2.  The  history  of  the  eugenics  movement. 

3.  The  contributions  of  Galton  to  the  science  of  eugenics. 


TOPICS  FOR  INVESTIGATION  441 

4.  The  social  life  of  earliest  man. 

5.  The  pure  food  movement  in  the  United  States. 

6.  The  struggle  against  tuberculosis. 

7.  A  national  department  of  health. 

8.  Public  health  work  (in  your  city). 


CHAPTER  IV 

1.  Analysis  of  a  given  habit. 

2.  An  analysis  of  the  pugnacious  impulses. 

3.  Feeble-mindedness  as  a  social  factor. 

4.  The  social  meaning  of  sympathy. 

5.  The  social  significance  of  habit. 

6.  A  comparison  of  imitative  and  initiative  behavior. 

7.  A  comparison  of  custom  imitation  and  fashion  imita- 

tion. 

8.  A  case  study  of  gregariousness. 


CHAPTER  V 

1.  Description  of  a  specific  social  attitude. 

2.  The  evolution  of  social  attitudes  in  a  specific  person's 

life. 

3.  A  comparison  of  the  aristocratic  attitude  and  the  demo- 

cratic  attitude. 

4.  Analysis  of  a  given  social  value. 

5.  A  case  study  of  social  isolation. 

6.  The  hobo  as  a  study  in  social  isolation. 

7.  A  study  of  homesickness  as  a  result  of  isolation. 

8.  A  case  study  of  accommodation. 

9.  The  socialization  process  in  a  given  child. 


442  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

10.  Problems  of  control  in  a  family  group. 

11.  An  analysis  of  the  taming  process. 


CHAPTER  VI 

1.  The  social  superiority  of  monogamy. 

2.  Woman's  contributions  to  social  progress. 

3.  The  primitive  family. 

4.  The  Hebrew  family. 

5.  Family  life  among  Indian  tribes. 

6.  Family  life  in  American  colonial  days. 

7.  The  nature  of  feminism. 

8.  The  home  as  affected  by  feminism. 

9.  The  struggle  for  equal  suffrage  in  the  United  States. 
10.  Young  people's  attitudes  toward  marriage  as  affected 

by   motion  picture  shows. 


CHAPTER  VII 

1.  Housing  problems  in  your  city. 

2.  Renting  versus  owning  a  home. 

3.  The  garden  city  plan  of  housing. 

4.  The  Octavia  Hill  experiments  in  housing. 

5.  Effects  of  apartment  houses  upon  family  life. 

6.  The  family  budget. 

7.  Democracy  in  the  home. 

8.  The  family  under  socialism. 

9.  Federal  regulation  of  divorce. 
10.  The  need  for  better  marriages. 


TOPICS  FOR  INVESTIGATION  443 

CHAPTER  VIII 

1.  The  playgrounds  in  your  city. 

2.  The  playground  movement  in  the  United  States. 

3.  The  social  center  movement. 

4.  A  social  analysis  of  intercollegiate  athletics. 

5.  Censorship  of  the  motion  picture. 

6.  The  civic  theater  movement. 

7.  The  public  dance  hall  as  a  social  problem. 

8.  Relation  of  playgrounds  to  delinquency. 

9.  Social  uses  of  leisure  time. 
10  Community  recreation. 

11.  A  recreation  program  for  the  family. 

CHAPTER  IX 

1.  The  social  changes  caused  by  the  Industrial  Revolution. 

2.  The  occupations  of  the  Iroquois  Indians. 

3.  The  rise  and  decline  of  slavery  as  a  social  institution. 

4.  The  origin  of  a  specific  occupation. 

5.  Factory  legislation. 

6.  A  study  of  the  newsboy  and  his  trade. 

7.  Child  labor  and  legislation. 

8.  A  living  wage  for  a  family  of  five. 


CHAPTER  X 

1.  The  minimum  wage  for  women. 

2.  The  National  Consumer's  League. 

3.  The  National  Woman's  Trade  Union  League. 

4.  Problems  of  organizing  women  in  industry. 


444  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

5.  Relation  of  overfatigue  to  industrial  accidents. 

6.  A  study  of  a  given  occupational  disease. 

7.  Waves  of  unemployment  in  the  United  States. 

8.  The  Federal  labor  exchange. 

9.  Workmen's  compensation. 

10.  Prevention  of  destitution. 

11.  The  problem  of  the  idle  rich. 


CHAPTER  XI 

1.  Social  effects  of  health  insurance. 

2.  Social  effects  of  guild  socialism. 

3.  Social  effects  of  syndicalism. 

4.  Social  effects  of  bolshevism. 

5.  Social  effects  of  capitalism. 

6.  Social  effects  of  profitism. 

7.  Profiteering. 

8.  Industrial  democracy. 

9.  A  program  for  solving  the  labor-capital  conflict. 

CHAPTER  XII 

1.  A  case  study  of  a  neighborhood. 

2.  The  community  organization  movement. 

3.  The  social  organization  of  the  Iroquois  Confederacy. 

4.  Social  concepts   in  the    Constitution    of    the    United 

States. 

5.  Social  implications  of  the  League  of  Nations. 

6.  Nationalism  versus  social  welfare. 

7.  The  nature  of  internationalism. 

8.  A  proposed  world  state. 

9.  A  description  of  the  process  of  making  a  citizen. 


TOPICS  FOR  INVESTIGATION  445 

CHAPTER  XIII 

1.  Social  studies  in  the  first  grade. 

2.  Sociology  in  the  high  school. 

3.  The  work  of  the  visiting  teacher. 

4.  The  socialized  recitation. 

5.  The  endowed  newspaper. 

6.  A  social  evaluation  of  a  given  newspaper. 

7.  Social  education  through  motion  pictures. 

8.  An  original  sociological  play. 

9.  An  original  social  short  story. 
10.  An  original  social  poem. 

CHAPTER  XIV 

1.  The  institutional  church. 

2.  The  social  service  work  of  a  given  church. 

3.  The  church  as  a  social  center. 

4.  A  social  service  program  for  the  churches. 

5.  The  relation  of  sociology  to  Christianity. 

6.  Religious  bases  of  social  progress. 

7.  The  social  phases  of  Christianity. 

8.  The  relation  between  the  church  and  labor. 

9.  Christian  socialism. 

10.  The  social  writings  of  Rauschenbusch. 

11.  Religious  education  versus  revivalism  as  forms  of  social 

control. 


CHAPTER  XV 
1.     The  Grange  as  a  social  institution. 


446  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

2.  Rural  leadership. 

3.  Rural  isolation. 

4.  Rural  social  life. 

5.  Social  phases  of  the  rural  school. 

6.  The  rural  mind. 

7.  Urbanization. 

8.  A  city  neighborhood  case  history. 

9.  The  urban  mind. 

10.  Homelessness  in  cities. 

11.  Cities  as  consumers  of  population. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

1.  Social  phases  of  migrating. 

2.  A  local  race  survey. 

3.  Causes  of  race  prejudice. 

4.  The  causes  of  jynching. 

5.  Prevention  of  lynching. 

6.  The  Negro's  problem  in  the  United  States. 

7.  The  Japanese  in  California. 

8.  The  new  American  race. 

9.  Social  phases  of  amalgamation. 
10.  Assimilation  versus  amalgamation. 


CHAPTER  XVII 

1.  Repressive  group  control. 

2.  Current  forms  of  taboo. 

3.  Stimulative  group  control. 

4.  Methods  of  creating  public  opinion. 

5.  Public  opinion  versus  law. 


TOPICS  FOR  INVESTIGATION  447 

6.  Civic  esthetics  as  a  form  of  control. 

7.  Social  hymns  as  forms  of  control. 

8.  Battle  songs  as  control  forces. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

1.  A  social  study  of  college  honor  systems. 

2.  Sources  of  your  standards  of  right  and  wrong. 

3.  Ritual  as  a  means  of  social  control. 

4.  Business  ethics. 

5.  A  case  study  of  leadership  as  a  control  element. 

6.  Social  elements  in  leadership. 

7.  The  prophet  as  a  leader. 

CHAPTER  XIX 

1.  The  juvenile  court  system. 

2.  Causes  of  delinquency  among  boys. 

3.  Causes  of  delinquency  among  girls. 

4.  The  juvenile  probation  system. 

5.  The  police  as  social  workers. 

6.  The  policewoman. 

7.  The  public  defender. 

8.  The  indeterminate  sentence. 

9.  The  parole  system. 

10.  The  county  jail  problem. 

11.  The  theories  of  Thomas  Mott  Osborne. 


CHAPTER  XX 

1.     Analysis  of  the  Springfield  Survey. 


448  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 

2.  The  social  survey  movement. 

3.  The  qualifications  of  a  successful  social  worker. 

4.  The  qualifications  of  a  successful  social  reformer. 

5.  Social  case  work  versus  social  reform. 

6.  A  survey  of  a  city  block. 

7.  A  survey  of  a  rural  neighborhood. 

8.  A  community  case  history. 


CHAPTER  XXI 

1.  Methods  of  teaching  sociology. 

2.  The  place  of  sociology  in  education. 

3.  The  sociological  viewpoint. 

4.  The  values  in  studying  sociology. 

5.  The  field  of  applied  sociology. 

6.  The  contributions  of  a  given  sociologist. 

7.  The  origins  of  sociology. 

8.  Analysis  of  sociology  journals. 

9.  The  main  tasks  of  sociology. 


INDEX 


Absolute  monarchy,  240. 

Accommodation,  103  ff. 

Acquisitiveness,   76. 

Adaptation,  104. 

Addams,  Jane,    158. 

Agriculture,   182. 

Alcoholism,  60,  167,  209,  370. 

Alphabet,  the,  89,  90. 

Amalgamation,  319. 

Americanization,  261. 

American  families,  131. 

American  Federation  of  Labor,  187. 

Amusements,  176. 

Ancestor  worship,  116. 

Andrews,  John  B,  204. 

Animal  groups,   19. 

Architecture,  340. 

Aristocracy,  251. 

Art,  338  ff.  345. 

Assimilation,  107  ff,  319  ff. 

Associations,  16,  52,  413. 

Attitudes,  41,  153,  167,  184,  192, 

Attitudes,  personal,  22,  107,  390. 
Attitudes,  social,  94  ff. 
Auburn  State  Prison,  378. 


Bacteria,   63. 
Beccaria,  376. 
Behavior,  personal,  20  ff. 
Behavior,  socialized,  20. 
Biologic  influences,  52  ff.,  412. 
Biological  evolution,  56  ff. 
Bismarck,  104. 
Boarding  houses,  131. 
Bolshevism,  223. 
Booth,  Charles,   394. 
British  Labor  Party,   232. 
Brotherhood,  109. 
Buddhism,  280. 
Business  ethics,  257  ff. 
Buyers'  strike,  the,  229. 


Campbell,  G.  L.,  204. 
Canadianization,  325. 
Capital,  213. 

Causes  of  child  labor,    192. 
Characters,  biological,  53. 
Child  labor,  189  ff.,  211,  254. 
Christianity,   118,  251,  281. 
Churches,  171,  276,  286. 
Cinema,  263   ff. 
Cities,   304  ff. 
Citizenship,  251. 
City  state,  239. 
Civilization,  268,  310,  340. 
Class  struggle,  the,  217. 
Classes,  privileged,  104,  208  ff. 
Classes,  vitality,   72. 
Climate,  influence  of,  44  ff. 
Coercion,  335. 
College  life,  257. 
Commercialization,  158,  265. 
Communication,  86  ff. 
Community  case  history,  394. 
Community  groups,  232. 
Community  recreation,  234. 
Community  spirit,  58,  244,  394. 
Competition,  102. 
Comte,  Auguste,  414. 
Conflict,   101   ff. 
Conflict  between  man  and  nature, 

49. 

Conscious  reactions,  97. 
Conservation   of  natural  resources, 

37,  38,  402. 
Conservatism,  42,  287. 
Constitutional  monarchy,  240. 
Consumers'  co-operation,  225. 
Continuation  schools,  260. 
Control,  79,  329  ff,  348  ff. 
Control,  parental,  115,  330. 
Control,  public  health,  62  ff. 
Control,  social,  79,  173,  329  ff. 
Cooley,  Charles  H.,  277. 
Co-operation,  57,  101,  105  ff. 


450 


INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 


Corporate  business,  213. 
County  jail,  383  ff. 
Courtship,  112. 
Crime,  140. 
Crises,  332. 
Curiosity,  258,  269. 
Custom  imitation,   82. 
Customs,  191,  352. 

D 

Dana,  Charles  A.,  265. 

Dance  hall,  the,  160. 

Dance,  the,  342. 

Davis,  Jr.,  M.  M,  157,  162. 

Decadence,  social  117. 

Delinquency,   386  ff.,   406. 

Democracy,  226,  240,  250,  421. 

Desert  region,  36. 

Devine,  E.  T.,  166. 

Dewey,  John,  155. 

Direct  action,  222. 

Distribution  of  immigrants,  322. 

Divorce,  116  ff.,  126  ff. 

Double  standards,   147. 

Drives,  psychological,  76  ff.,  94  ff. 

Dysgenic  factors,  61. 


E 


Earth  as  man's  home,  33. 
Eastern  civilization,  248. 
Edison,  Thomas  A.,  21. 
Education,   73,    149,   256   ff.,   267, 

268,  272. 

Ellwood,  Charles  A,  247. 
Elmira  reformatory,  379. 
Emotions,  77. 
Engels,  394. 
Epidemics,  65. 
Ethical  dualism,  354. 
Eugenics,  58  ff. 

F 

Fabian  socialists,  218. 
Factory  system,  186,  193. 
Family,  the,  112,  351,  403. 
Fashion  imitation,  83. 
Fatigue,  198  ff. 
Feeble-mindedness,  59. 


Feelings,  77. 
Feudal  state,  239. 
Feuds,  42,  233. 
Fiske,  John,  154. 
Followership,  362. 
Food  supply,  70. 


Galton,   Francis,   58. 
Galsworthy,  John,  418. 
Genius,  56,  86. 
Gesture,  88. 

Geographic   influences,    33. 
Giddings,  Franklin  H.,  72. 
God,   kingdom  of,   284. 
Godfrey,  Hollis,  70. 
Gorgas,  W.  C.,  68. 
Government  control,  215,  237,  252. 
Greeley,  Horace,  265. 
Gregariousness,    76,    86    ff.,   91    ff., 

107. 

Grosse,  155,  346. 
Grotius,  245. 

Group  control,  67,  97,  329  ff.,  390. 
Group  co-operation,  18. 
Group  conflicts,  17. 
Group  heritage,  21. 
Group  influences,  20,  97. 
Group  leadership,  362. 
Group  organization,  237. 
Group  overlapping,   18. 
Group  permanence,  39. 
Group   phenomena,    15. 
Group  progress,  393  ff. 
Group  stagnation,  22. 
Group  stimulation,  21,  22. 
Group,  nature  of,  15  ff. 
Guild  socialism,  221. 


H 


Habitual  reactions,  78  ff.,  91. 
Hague  Tribunal  244. 
Hansen,   George,  72. 
Health,  61   ff.,  314,  403. 
Hebrew  family,  115. 
Henderson,  Charles  R.,  227,  253. 
Heredity,   52   ff. 
Heritage,   social,   21,  95. 
High  school  sociology,  410. 


INDEX 


History  of  human  groups,  24. 

History  of  the  family,   113. 

Hoe-culture,    181. 

Holland,  40. 

Home  attitudes,  184,  306. 

Home  recreation,  174. 

Horde,  the,  238. 

Housing  problem,  136  ff,  314. 

Howard,  George  Elliott,  133. 

Howard,  John,  376  ff. 

Howe,  F.  C,  156. 

Human  association,  19. 

Humanitarianism,  251. 

Humidity,  45. 

Huntingdon,   Ellsworth,  45,  46. 

Hypocrisy,  288. 


Jails,  377,  383. 

Japanese  in  California,  318  ff. 
Jesus,  teachings  of,  283. 
Judaism,  283. 

ury  system,  375. 

ustice,  218,  334. 

uvenile  court,  387. 

uvenile  delinquency,   386  ff. 


King,  W.  I.,  208. 
Kingdom  of  God,  284. 


Ideas  of  permanence,  34. 

Idle  rich,  207. 

Ignorance,  142,   191,  356. 

Imitation,  80  ff. 

Immigrant   groups,     261,     311     ff., 

319  ff. 

Immorality,  sex,  145. 
Income  tax,  253. 
Independence,  297,  307. 
Indeterminate  sentence,  382. 
Individualism,  129,  221,  349. 
Industrial  accidents,  203,  240. 
Industrial  democracy,  226. 
Industrial  education,  260. 
Industrial  revolution,  183. 
Industry,    modern,    124,    130,    313, 

404. 

Influence  of  groups,  20. 
Instinctive  impulses,  75  ff. 
Insurance,  social,  404. 
Intellectual  method,  272. 
Intemperance,  209. 
Interaction,  100  ff. 
International  law,  245. 
Invention,  28,  43,  79,  85  ff.,   180, 

270. 

Iron  age,  28. 
Iroquois  Indians,  114. 
Isle  of  man,  40. 
Isolation,  99  ff,  114,  295,  314. 


Labor-capital  conflict,  the,  228. 
Labor  conditions,   184  ff. 
Laboratory    of    sociology   students, 

19. 

Land  area,  influence  of,  39  ff. 
Land  speculation,  139,  183. 
Language,  88. 
Law,  96,  334  ff. 
Leadership,   105,   360  ff. 
League  of  Nations,  246. 
Legal  Aid  Society,  374. 
Legislation,  149,  193,  202. 
Lincoln,  Abraham,  189. 
Lodgers,   140. 
Los  Angeles,  164. 
Love,   284. 
Luxuries,    132.   368. 
Lynching,  317. 


M 


Malaria,  66. 

Marett,  R.  R.,  27. 

Marriage,  59,  116,  121  ff.,  129  ff. 

Marxianism,  217. 

Mason,  0.  T.,  28. 

McClean,  Harry  J,  385. 

Mechanisms,   psychological,   76,  94 

ff.    ' 

Mendelian  laws,  54. 
Merit,  84. 

Metronymic  family,  114. 
Middle  ages,  294. 


452 


INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 


Migration,  47,  309  ff. 

Milk  supply,70. 

Mohammedanism,  278. 

Monarchy,  240. 

Monogamy,  122  ff. 

Monopoly,  221. 

Mores,   332. 

Mothers'  pensions,  125. 

Motion  pictures,  162  ff.,  263  ff. 

Mountain  barriers,  41. 

Mountain  environments,  40  ff. 

Mountain  industries,  41. 

Music,  343. 

Mutation,  55,   56. 

N 

Nation  groups,  235  ff.,   331. 
Nationalism,   254,    308,    356. 
Naturalization,  319. 
Negroes,   315. 
Neighborhood  group,  232. 
Neolithic  age,  27. 
Neurasthenia,  200. 
New  York  City,  159,  162,  397. 
Newspaper,  the,  263   ff.,  345. 
Nitobe,  Inazo,  249. 


Occupational  diseases,  68,  204  ff. 
Ocean  boundaries,  43  ff. 
Offenders,  372. 
Old   Testament,    115. 
Opinion,   352. 
Organic  evolution,  56  ff. 
Organization,    105. 
Orientalism,   248. 
Original  nature,  92,  108. 
Osborne,  T.  M.,   380. 
Overcrowding,   137,  ff. 
Over-organization,   106. 


Painting,  341. 
Paleolithic  Age,  26. 
Parental  control,  115,  330,  371. 
Parks,   171. 


Parole,   383. 

Pathogenic  bacteria,  63. 

Patronymic  family,   114,  44. 

Patten,  S.  N.,  158. 

Pensions  for  mothers,   105. 

Personal  attitudes,  22. 

Personal  behavior,   20  ff.,   348   ff., 

416. 

Personal  control,  348  ff.,  366  ff. 
Personality,   16,   23,  29,  416. 
Pittsburg  Survey,  393. 
Plato,  39. 

Play  attitudes,   167. 
Play  groups,  153  ff. 
Playground  movement,  the,  168. 
Poetry,  271,  343. 
Policemen,   372. 
Policewomen,   373. 
Political  parties,  241. 
Polyandry,  121. 
Polygyny,  121. 
Polytheism,  279. 
Pooling,   214. 
Population,  367. 
Poverty,  148,  209,  367. 
Prayer,  279. 

Prehistoric  remains  of  man,  25  ff. 
Prejudice,  racial,  315. 
Preventive  eugenics,  60. 
Primitive  groups,  278. 
Primitive  man,  24. 
Prison   farm,   282. 
Prison  labor.  380  ff. 
Probation,   343,   386. 
Process,  educational,  269,  274. 
Process,  the  social,  98. 
Producers'  co-operation, 
Profession,  a,  185,  351. 
Profit  sharing,  225. 
Profiteering,  228. 
Profitism,  219. 
Progress,  examples  of,  29. 
Property,   116. 
Prose,    271. 

Psychologic  factors,  75  ff. 
Public  defender,  374. 
Public  health,  60  ff. 
Public  opinion,  59,  95,  332  ff. 
Public  speaking,  345. 
Punishment,  242,  375  ff. 
Pure  food,  72. 


INDEX 


453 


Racial  conflicts,  315. 

Racial  groups,  309  if. 

Rainfall,  45. 

Rainwater,  Clarence  E.,  168. 

Rational  imitation,  84. 

Recreation,  103  ff. 

Reform,  372. 

Reformation,  380  ff. 

Regression,  law  of,  54. 

Religion,  36,  42,  239,  243. 

Religious  dynamic,  286,  390. 

Religious  groups,  276,  331. 

Rent,  high,  139. 

Renaissance,  119. 

Retaliation,  376. 

Ritual,  333. 

Rivers,  43. 

River  valley,  35. 

Root,  Elihu,  252. 

Ross,  Edward  A.,  82,  266,  336. 

Rural  church,  300. 

Rural  group,  294  ff. 

Rural  mind,  the.  295. 

Rural  school,  300. 

Rural  sociology,  302. 

Ruskin,  143. 

Russia,   40. 


Sabotage,  222. 

Schools,  170,  321,  360. 

School  groups,   256. 

Sculpture,  341. 

Self  consciousness,  350. 

Selfish  nature,  108  ff. 

Semple,  Ellen  C.,  35,  39,  41,  42,  48. 

Service,  263. 

Settlements,  social,  171. 

Sex  education,  259. 

Sex  immorality,  145. 

Sex  nature,   370. 

Slavery,   182. 

Small  areas,  39. 

Sociologized  behavior,  20. 

Socialized  education.  262. 

Socialized  family,  144  ff. 

Socialized  play,  168. 

Socialized  newspaper,  266. 


Socialized  religion,  286  ff.,  292. 

Social  attitudes,  94  ff. 

Social  case  work,  399. 

Social  control,  107  ff.,  173. 

Social  decadence,   117. 

Social  evolution,   56   ff.,   92. 

Social  groups,  15,  30. 

Social  heritage,  21,  271. 

Social  hymns,  344. 

Social  institutions,  110,  113. 

Social  insurance,  224  ff.,  404. 

Social  integration,  42. 

Social  legislation,  253. 

Social  nature,  108. 

Social    principles    of    Christianity, 

282ff. 

Social  process,  the,  98. 
Social  progress,  29. 
Social  reform,  297  ff. 
Social  research,   397. 
Social  service,  289  ff.,  336. 
Social  settlements,   171. 
Social  situations,  94,  157. 
Social  surveys,   393,  ff. 
Social  telesis,  402  ff. 
Social  values,  94  ff. 
Social  work,  397  ff.,  420. 
Socialism,  215  ff. 
Socialization,  107  ff. 
Sociology,  definition  of,  15,  19,  20, 

31. 

Sociology,  science  of,  411. 
Sociology,  teaching  of,  408  ff. 
Soil  fertility,  34  ff. 
Speculation  in  land,  139. 
Spencer,  Herbert,   154,  415. 
Spiritual  environment,   272. 
Stoddart,   Bessie,   175. 
Suggestion,  268. 
Syndicalism,  222. 


Taboo,  333. 
Tagore,  247. 
Tarde,  Gabriel,  82. 
Taxation,  253. 

Teaching  of  sociology,  408  ff. 
Temperature,  annual,  45. 
Temperate  zone,  48. 
Tenements,  131,  140. 


454 


INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIOLOGY 


Theaters,  161. 
Thomas,  W.  I.,   198. 
Traditions,   92. 
Transportation,  143. 
Tropics,  48. 
Trusts,  the,  214. 
Tuberculosis,  60,  66. 
Typhoid  fever,  65. 

U 

Unchastity,  146. 
Unemployment,  205  ff. 
Union  labor,  184,  187,  323. 
Unselfish  service,  263,  359. 
United  States,  the,   127,   133,  U6, 

146,    154,    165,    201,    208,    258, 

303,  315,  324,  385. 
Urban  groups,  303  ff. 


Values,  social,  94. 
Van  Kleeck,  Mary,  201. 
Variability,  biological,  56. 
Variation,  biological,  55. 
Veiller,  Lawrence,  141. 
Venereal  disease,  60,  146. 
Village,'  235. 


Visiting  teachers,  the,  261. 
Vitality,  58  ff. 
Vocational  guidance,  260. 
Volitional  activity,  80. 

W 

Ward,  Harry  F.,  289  ff. 

Ward,  Lester  F.,  411,  415. 

Washington,  Booker  T.,  316. 

Washington  Conference,  the  246. 

Watson,  David,  285. 

Wealth,  influence  of,  120,  358. 

Webb,  Sidney,  207. 

Welfare  work,  227. 

Western  civilization,  129,  144,  247. 

Wilson,  Woodrow,  244. 

Women,  117,  130. 

Women  in  industry,  199  ff. 

Woodworth,  R.  S.,  76. 

World  group,  the,  243. 

World  War,  the,  83,  97,  166,  226, 

321,  416. 
Work,  351. 


Yarros,  V.  S.,  188,  266. 
Yellow  fever,  66. 


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